2. Affixation (Derivation)
Affixation is coining new words by means of adding suffixes and prefixes to the word-building base, or the stem. It falls into suffixation and prefixation.
Suffixation. Derivational suffixes may be characterized from different points of view: their origin, part-of-speech, meaning, productivity, ability to join particular stems (valency), etc.
As for the origin of suffixes, there are native and borrowed suffixes.
To the native suffixes belong -ful, -less, -ish, -er, -dom, -ship, -hood, etc., e.g., handful, fatherless, preacher, freedom, etc. To the borrowed ones belong -able (Lat.), -ment (Fr.), -ion, -tion (Lat.), -age (Fr.), e.g., readable, enjoyment, union, courage. Borrowed suffixes are not adopted as isolated units, though they are just singled out of whole words if their structure recurs often enough.
Speaking about part of speech characteristics of suffixes one should remember that each part of speech has its own set of suffixes, for example:
-er (teacher), -ent (student), -ence (patience), -dom (freedom), -hood (brotherhood), -ment (employment) belong to noun-forming suffixes;
-ate (educate), -ise/-ize (nationalize), -(i)fy (simplify), -en (widen) are verb-forming suffixes;
-ish (British), -an (American), -ful (beautiful), -less (fatherless), -able (readable) are adjective-forming suffixes;
-wise (clockwise), -fold (manifold), -ly (quickly) are used to form adverbs.
There are three numeral-forming suffixes: -ty (twenty), -teen (fifteen), -th (fifth).
All suffixes are meaningful, and are grouped within each part of speech according to their meaning. E.g., adjective-forming suffixes include a group with the meaning of national belonging: -an (Indian), -ese (Chinese), -ish (English); the suffixes -ly and -like (e.g., manly, ladylike) both have the meaning «in a manner characteristic of the object denoted by the stem» and so on. It should also be noted that many suffixes are polysemantic (e.g., -er may have agentival meaning, i.e., the meaning of the «doer of the action», e.g., teacher, and instrumental meaning, e.g., player (a device), computer). Some suffixes have homonyms, too (e.g., a homonym of the adjective-forming suffix -en (golden) is the verb-forming suffix -en (widen).
According to their ability to form new words in present-day English suffixes are classified into:
productive, e.g., -er (packer), -ing (doing), -ful (roomful), -able (get-at-able), etc.
non-productive, e.g., -th (death), -hood (chidhood), -some (tiresome), etc.
dead e.g., -d (deed).
Some non-productive suffixes can become productive again, e.g., -dom (slavedom).
Prefixation.
Prefixes are characterized from the point of view of their origin, part-of-speech, meaning, valency, too.
Most prefixal words are verbs (42%); prefixal adjectives make 33,5%, prefixal nouns - 22%. Most prefixes form new words in the same part of speech, e.g., true – untrue, understand – misunderstand, estimate – underestimate, champion – ex-champion. They modify the meaning of the stem: to negation (untrue, demobilize); to repetition (rewrite); to degree (underdeveloped); to place (subway); to time (post-graduate), etc. But some prefixes form words in a different part of speech, e.g., be- (belittle), en- (enslave), a- (asleep), in- (indent), etc.
The native prefixes are un-, under-, over-, mis-, re-. The borrowed prefixes are: trans-, ex-, super-, sub-, со-, e.g., transatlantic, ex-wife, super-star, submarine, co-ed.
Prefixes can be polysemantic or homonymous, too. E.g., dis- has two meanings: negative, e.g., advantage – disadvantage and reversative, e.g., qualify – disqualify. The prefix a- may be used to form statives, e.g., abroad, asleep; its homonym has a negative meaning, e.g., amoral.