17. Reveal specifics of behavioral approach of psychology

What assumptions do behaviourists make? Behaviourists regard all behaviour as a response to a stimulus. They assume that what we do is determined by the environment we are in, which provides stimuli to which we respond, and the environments we have been in in the past, which caused us to learn to respond to stimuli in particular ways. Behaviourists are unique amongst psychologists in believing that it is unnecessary to speculate about internal mental processes when explaining behaviour: it is enough to know which stimuli elicit which responses. Behaviourists also believe that people are born with only a handful of innate reflexes (stimulus-response units that do not need to be learned) and that all of a person’s complex behaviours are the result of learning through interaction with the environment. They also assume that the processes of learning are common to all species and so humans learn in the same way as other animals. How do behaviourists explain human behaviour? Behaviourists explain behaviour in terms of (1) the stimuli that elicit it and (2) the events that caused the person to learn to respond to the stimulus that way. Behaviourists use two processes to explain how people learn: classical conditioning and operant conditioning. In classical conditioning, people learn to associate two stimuli when they occur together, such that the response originally elicited by one stimulus is transferred to another. The person learns to produce an existing response to a new stimulus. For example, Watson & Rayner (1920) conditioned a young boy (‘Little Albert’) to respond with anxiety to the stimulus of a white rat. They achieved this by pairing the rat with a loud noise that already made Albert anxious. The anxiety response was transferred to the rat because it was presented together with the noise. The response also generalized to other stimuli that resembled the rat, including a rabbit and a fur coat. Over time, conditioned responses like this gradually diminish in a process called extinction. In operant conditioning, people learn to perform new behaviours through the consequences of the things they do. If a behaviour they produce is followed by a reinforcement then the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated increases in future (the behaviour is strengthened). A consequence can be reinforcing in two ways: either the person gets something good (positive reinforcement) or they avoid something bad (negative reinforcement). Conversely, if a behaviour is followed by a punishment then the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated in future decreases (the behaviour is weakened). Whereas classical conditioning only allows the person to produce existing responses to new stimuli, operant conditioning allows them to learn new responses.

18. Describe specifics and achievements of gestalt-psychology. Gestalt psychology is based on the observation that we often experience things that are not a part of our simple sensations.  The original observation was Wertheimer’s, when he noted that we perceive motion where there is nothing more than a rapid sequence of individual sensory events.  This is what he saw in the toy stroboscope he bought at the Frankfurt train station, and what he saw in his laboratory when he experimented with lights flashing in rapid succession (like the Christmas lights that appear to course around the tree, or the fancy neon signs in Las Vegas that seem to move).  The effect is called apparent motion, and it is actually the basic principle of motion pictures.

Furthermore, say the Gestalt psychologists, we are built to experience the structured whole as well as the individual sensations.  In perception, there are many organizing principles called gestalt laws.  The most general version is called the law of pragnanz.  Pragnanz is German for pregnant, but in the sense of pregnant with meaning, rather than pregnant with child.  For example, a set of dots outlining the shape of a star is likely to be perceived as a star, not as a set of dots.  We tend to complete the figure, make it the way it “should” be, finish it.  Like we somehow manage to see this as a "B"...

The law of closure says that, if something is missing in an otherwise complete figure, we will tend to add it.  A triangle, for example, with a small part of its edge missing, will still be seen as a triangle.  We will “close” the gap.

The law of similarity says that we will tend to group similar items together, to see them as forming a gestalt, within a larger form.  Here is a simple typographic example:

OXXXXXXXXXX  XOXXXXXXXXX  XXOXXXXXXXX  XXXOXXXXXXX  XXXXOXXXXXX  XXXXXOXXXXX  XXXXXXOXXXX  XXXXXXXOXXX  XXXXXXXXOXX  XXXXXXXXXOX  XXXXXXXXXXO

It is just natural for us to see the o’s as a line within a field of x’s.

Another law is the law of proximity.  Things that are close together as seen as belonging together.  For example...

**************

**************

**************

You are much more likely to see three lines of close-together *’s than 14 vertical collections of 3 *’s each.

Next, there’s the law of symmetry.  Take a look at this example:

[     ][     ][     ]

Despite the pressure of proximity to group the brackets nearest each other together, symmetry overwhelms our perception and makes us see them as pairs of symmetrical brackets.

Another law is the law of continuity.  When we can see a line, for example, as continuing through another line, rather than stopping and starting, we will do so, as in this example, which we see as composed of two lines, not as a combination of two angles...:

Figure-ground is another Gestalt psychology principle.  It was first introduced by the Danish phenomenologist Edgar Rubin (1886-1951).  The classic example is this one... But the gestalt principles are by no means restricted to perception -- that’s just where they were first noticed.  Take, for example, memory.  A similar example involved a five year old girl, presented with a geometry problem way over her head:  How do you figure the area of a parallelogram?  She considered, then excitedly asked for a pair of scissors.  She cut off a triangle from one end, and moved it around to the other side, turning the parallelogram into a simple rectangle.  Wertheimer called this productive thinking.

The idea behind both of these examples, and much of the gestalt explanation of things, is that the world of our experiencing is meaningfully organized, to one degree or another.  When we learn or solve problems, we are essentially recognizing meaning that is there, in the experience, for the “dis-covering.”

Most of what we’ve just looked at has been absorbed into “mainstream” psychology -- to such a degree that many people forget to give credit to the people who discovered these principles!  There is one more part of their theory that has had less acceptance:  Isomorphism.

Isomorphism suggests that there is some clear similarity in the gestalt patterning of stimuli and of the activity in the brain while we are perceiving the stimuli. 

19. Define peculiarities of Z. Freud psychoanalysis approach . Sigmund Freud explored the human mind more thoroughly than any other who became before him. His contributions to psychology are vast. Freud was one of the most influential people of the twentieth century and his enduring legacy has influenced not only psychology, but art, literature and even the way people bring up their children.

Freud’s lexicon has become embedded within the vocabulary of western society. Words he introduced through his theories are now used by everyday people, such as anal (personality), libido, denial, repression, cathartic, Freudian slip, and neurotic.

Freud was the founding father of psychoanalysis, a method for treating a mental illness and also a theory which explains human behavior.

Freud (1900, 1905) developed a topographical model of the mind, whereby he described the features of mind’s structure and function.

In this model the conscious mind (everything we are aware of) is seen as the tip of the iceberg, with the unconscious mind a repository of a ‘cauldron’ of primitive wishes and impulse kept at bay and mediated by the preconscious area.

However, Freud found that some events and desires were often too frightening or painful for his patients to acknowledge. Freud believed such information was locked away in a region he called the unconscious mind. This happens through the process of repression.

Sigmund Freud emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind, and a primary assumption of Freudian theory is that the unconscious mind governs behavior to a greater degree than people suspect.

Indeed, the goal of psychoanalysis is to make the unconscious conscious.The Psyche

Freud (1923) later developed a more structural model of the mind comprising the entities id, ego and superego (what Freud called “the psychic apparatus”).

These are not physical areas within the brain, but rather hypothetical conceptualizations of important mental functions.

Freud assumed the id operated at an unconscious level according to the pleasure principle. The id is contains two kinds of biological instincts (or dives) which Freud called Eros and Thanatos.

Eros, or life instinct, helps the individual to survive; it directs life-sustaining activities such as respiration, eating and sex (Freud, 1925). The energy created by the life instincts is known as libido.

In contrast, Thanatos or death instinct, is viewed as a set of destructive forces present in all human beings (Freud, 1920). When this energy is directed outward onto others, it is expressed as aggression and violence.

Freud believed that Eros or stronger than Thanatos, thus enabling people to survive rather than self-destruct.

The ego develops from the id during infancy. The egos goal is to satisfy the demands of the id in a safe a socially acceptable way.

In contrast to the id the ego follows the reality principle as it operates in both the conscious and unconscious mind.

This particular theory shows how adult personality is determined by their childhood experiences.

20. Reveal peculiar features of neo-behavioral psychology. A professor of psychology at the University of California at Berkeley, Tolman focused his experimental work largely on white rats learning their way through mazes. He differed from his behaviorist predecessors by taking a more holistic approach to behavior than they had. Rather than talking in terms of atomistic, isolated stimuli and responses, Tolman emphasized their integration with the environment by referring to them as "stimulating agencies" and "behavior acts." In his 1932 Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men, Tolman argued that purpose and cognition were essential to behavior and should be interpreted not as mentalistic entities but as outwardly observable features of behavior describable in objective language. He also defined the notion of the intervening variable, a link between stimulus and response that helps to determine behavior. As many as ten intervening variables could exist between a stimulating agency and a rat's decision to move in a certain direction at a choice-point in a maze. Of the three neobehaviorists, Hull was the most ambitious about constructing a formal theory of behavior. He believed he had found the fundamental law of learning or habit-formation—the law of stimulus generalization—and that this law not only underlay all behavior in animals and humans, but was a principle basic enough to unify all the social sciences. These laws of behavior explained how all learning took place without resorting to immaterial notions like soul or free will. Hull, who had originally intended to become an engineer, even designed a variety of machines that worked on the principles of conditioning reflexes, in order to demonstrate that learning was a wholly mechanistic process. He expressed his laws of behavior in mathematical terms, filling his 1943 Principles of Behavior: An Introduction to Behavior Theory with complex equations.

Neobehaviorism came in for strong criticism in the late 1950s and 1960s. Philosophers of science questioned the claim that any science could be theory-neutral and based solely in observation; observations were themselves seen to be theory-laden. Psychologists questioned the idea that learning was a singular entity that could form the basis for all of psychology. In particular, cognitive psychology, drawing on insights from computer science, redefined mental processes such as problem solving, learning, and memory in terms of information processing, a development that gave a new autonomy and a new respectability to the study of internal mental states. Influenced by this cognitivist turn, the psycholinguist Noam Chomsky (b. 1928) published a scathing review of Skinner's Verbal Behavior, arguing that language had to be understood in terms of universal and innate mental structures, not as behavior shaped by the environment. Behaviorism is currently regarded by psychologists as one approach among many; both cognitivism and neuroscience are arguably as influential in understanding mind and behavior.

21. Represent content of cognitive approach in modern psychology. Cognitive psychology is the scienitific study of the mind as an information processor Cognitive psychologists try to build up cognitive models of the information processing that goes on inside people’s minds, including perception, attention, language, memory thinking and consciousness. The cognitive perspective applies a nomothetic approach to discover human cognitive processes, but have also adopted idiographic techniques through using case studies (e.g. KF, HM). Cognitive psychology is also a reductionist approach. This means that all behaviour, no matter how complex can be reduced to simple cognitive processes, like memory or perception. Typically cognitive psychologists use the laboratory experiment to study behavior. This is because the cognitive approach is a scientific one. For example, participants will take part in memory tests in strictly controlled conditions. However, the widely used lab experiment can be criticized for lacking ecological validity (a major criticism of cognitive psychology).

Cognitive psychology became of great importance in the mid 1950s. Several factors were important in this: 

• Dissatisfaction with the behaviorist approach in its simple emphasis on external behavior rather than internal processes.

• The development of better experimental methods.

• Comparison between human and computer processing of information.

The emphasis of psychology shifted away from the study of conditioned behaviourand psychoanalytical notions about the study of the mind, towards the understanding of human information processing, using strict and rigorous laboratory investigation.

The cognitive approach began to revolutionize psychology in the late 1950’s and early 1960’s, to become the dominant approach (i.e. perspective) in psychology by the late 1970s. Interest in mental processes had been gradually restored through the work of Piaget and Tolman.

But it was the arrival of the computer that gave cognitive psychology the terminology and metaphor it needed to investigate the human mind. The start of the use of computers allowed psychologists to try to understand the complexities of human cognition by comparing it with something simpler and better understood i.e. an artificial system such as a computer.

The information processing approach is based on a number of assumptions, including:

1. Information made available from the environment is processed by a series of processing systems (e.g. attention, perception, short-term memory);

2. These processing systems transform, or alter the information in systematic ways;

3. The aim of research is to specify the processes and structures that underlie cognitive performance;

4. Information processing in humans resembles that in computers.

22. Consider K. Jung's psychoanalytical approach. Carl Gustav Jung was a Swiss psychiatrist whose research was deep-rooted in psychoanalysis. He was greatly influenced by Sigmund Freud and even conducted research alongside him. Eventually, though, Jung disagreed with many of Freud's theories. Jung is best known for his research in personality, dream analysis and the human psyche. His theories are so revered that they were made into their own school of psychotherapy: Jungian psychology, which is also called analytical psychology. Let's look deeper into the main theories of Jungian psychology.

In his theory of personality, Carl Jung distinguishes two different attitude types: Introverts, which are those people who receive stimulation from within, and extroverts, which are those who receive their stimulation from the environment. Jung also separates introverts and extroverts into four subtypes according to the functions that control the way they perceive the world. Both introverts and extroverts can be any of these subtypes, so there are eight possible personality types. These four functions are:

1. Thinking

Applying reasoning to the situations and environments you encounter.

2. Feeling

Applying subjective, personal assessment to the situations and environments you encounter. Unlike David, Donna relies on her feelings to tell her how to make a decision. If something feels good, she goes for it; if it doesn't, she avoids it.

3. Sensation

Applying aesthetic value to the situations and environments you encounter.

4. Intuition

Using your unconscious or the mystical to understand your experiences.

The major concepts of analytical psychology as developed by Jung include: Synchronicity - an a-causal principle as a basis for the apparently random simultaneous occurrence of phenomena.^[54]

Archetype - a universal predisposition to form images, a structural aspect of the psyche, personal and collective, the 'imprinter'

Archetypal images - symbols with numinosity; symbols that mediate opposites in the psyche, often found cross-culturally in religious art, mythology, fairy tales; the 'imprint'

Complex - psychic traits associated with an archetype, often in a state of repression

Extraversion and introversion - personality traits contributing to Personality type.^[55]

Shadow - the repressed side of the personality, often experienced as negative

Collective unconscious - the shadow of the group, as the obverse of the herd

Anima - the feminine aspect of a man's psyche, personal and collective, both a complex and an archetypal image

Animus - the masculine aspect of a woman's psyche, personal and collective, complex and archetypal image

Self - the central archetypal image governing the individuation process, symbolized by mandalas, the union of male and female, totality, unity

Individuation - a process of wholeness "which negates neither the conscious or unconscious position but does justice to them both"

24. Clarify a content of humanistic approach in modern psychology. Humanistic, humanism and humanist are terms in psychology relating to an approach which studies the whole person, and the uniqueness of each individual.  Essentially, these terms refer the same approach in psychology.

Humanism is a psychological perspective that emphasizes the study of the whole person. Humanistic psychologists look at human behavior not only through the eyes of the observer, but through the eyes of the person doing the behaving. Sometimes the humanistic approach is called phenomenological. This means that personality is studied from the point of view of the individual’s subjective experience. For Rogers the focus of psychology is not behaviour (Skinner), the unconscious (Freud), thinking (Wundt) or the human brain but how individuals perceive and interpret events. Rogers is therefore important because he redirected psychology towards the study of the self.

The humanistic approach in psychology developed as a rebellion against what some psychologists saw as the limitations of the behaviorist and psychodynamic psychology. The humanistic approach is thus often called the “third force” in psychology after psychoanalysis and behaviorism. Humanism rejected the assumptions of the behaviorist perspective which is characterized as deterministic, focused on reinforcement of stimulus-response behavior and heavily dependent on animal research.

Humanistic psychology also rejected the psychodynamic approach because it is also deterministic, with unconscious irrational and instinctive forces determining human thought and behavior.  Both behaviorism and psychoanalysis are regarded as dehumanizing by humanistic psychologists.Humanistic psychology begins with the existential assumptions that phenomenology is central and that people have free will.  Personal agency is the humanistic term for the exercise of free will.  Personal agency refers to the choices we make in life, the paths we go down and their consequences.

A further assumption is then added - people are basically good, and have an innate need to make themselves and the world better. The humanistic approach emphasizes the personal worth of the individual, the centrality of human values, and the creative, active nature of human beings. The approach is optimistic and focuses on noble human capacity to overcome hardship, pain and despair. Both Rogers and Maslow regarded personal growth and fulfillment in life as a basic human motive. This means that each person, in different ways, seeks to grow psychologically and continuously enhance themselves. This has been captured by the term self-actualization, which is about psychological growth, fulfillment and satisfaction in life.  However, Rogers and Maslow both describe different ways of how self-actualization can be achieved.

Central to the humanistic theories of Rogers (1959) and Maslow (1943) are the subjective, conscious experiences of the individual.  Humanistic psychologists argue that objective reality is less important than a person's subjective perception and understanding of the world.  Because of this, Rogers and Maslow placed little value on scientific psychology, especially the use of the psychology laboratory to investigate both human and animal behavior.

Humanism rejects scientific methodology like experiments and typically uses qualitative research methods.  For example, diary accounts, open-ended questionnaires, unstructured interviews and unstructured observations.  Qualitative research is useful for studies at the individual level, and to find out, in depth, the ways in which people think or feel (e.g. case studies). The way to really understand other people is to sit down and talk with them, share their experiences and be open to their feelings.

23. Signify A.Adler's concept of inferiority complex. An inferiority complex is a lack of self-worth, a doubt and uncertainty, and feelings of not measuring up to standards. It is often subconscious, and is thought to drive afflicted individuals to overcompensate, resulting either in spectacular achievement or extreme asocial behavior. In modern literature, the preferred terminology is "lack of covert self-esteem".^[1] For many, it is developed through a combination of genetic personality characteristics and personal experiences.

Classical Adlerian psychology makes a distinction between primary and secondary inferiority feelings.

• A primary inferiority feeling is said to be rooted in the young child's original experience of weakness, helplessness and dependency. It can then be intensified by comparisons to siblings, romantic partners, and adults.

• A secondary inferiority feeling relates to an adult's experience of being unable to reach a subconscious, fictional final goal of subjective security and success to compensate for the inferiority feelings. The perceived distance from that goal would lead to a negative/depressed feeling that could then prompt the recall of the original inferiority feeling; this composite of inferiority feelings could be experienced as overwhelming. The goal invented to relieve the original, primary feeling of inferiority which actually causes the secondary feeling of inferiority is the "catch-22" of this dilemma. This vicious cycle is common in neurotic lifestyles.

Feeling inferior is often viewed as being inferior to another person, but this is not always the case in the Adlerian view. One often feels incompetent to perform a task, such as a test in school.

An inferiority complex occurs when the feelings of inferiority are intensified in the individual through discouragement or failure. Those who are at risk for developing a complex include people who: show signs of low self-esteem or self-worth, have low socioeconomic status, or have a history of depression symptoms. Children reared in households where they were constantly criticized or did not live up to parents' expectations may also develop an inferiority complex. Many times there are warning signs to someone who may be more prone to developing an inferiority complex. For example, someone who is prone to attention and approval-seeking behaviors may be more susceptible. Also, children raised in families where everything is done for them, who have developed what Adler called a "pampered lifestyle". These individuals have developed a form of learned helplessness and are unable to overcome the problems of life without assistance.

When an inferiority complex is in full effect, it may impact the performance of the individual as well as impact the individual's self-esteem. Unconscious psychological and emotional processes can disrupt students’ cognitive learning, and negatively “charged” feeling-toned memory associations can derail the learning process. Hutt found that math can become associated with a psychological inferiority complex, low motivation and self-efficacy, poor self-directed learning strategies, and feeling unsafe or anxious.^[5]

Widely researched, but often not talked about specifically in this area is the concept of self-esteem and that people can feel good about their abilities and have self-esteem in areas where they feel competent and might not hold such personal esteem in other areas of their life. In essence, self-esteem can also be context-driven. Thus, the theory that someone has an overarching inferiority complex is a bit outdated (see Self-complexity theory).

In the mental health treatment population, this characteristic is shown in patients with many disorders such as certain types of schizophrenia, mood disorders, and personality disorders.

25. Discuss a principle of determinism in psychology . Determinism is not just causality. Determinism goes far beyond 1 causality, and certainly much farther than psychological science requires. Many scientific psychologists embrace determinism without realizing what it means. That, at least, is the distinct impression left with me after the dramatic debate about free will at the keynote session of the big annual conference of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology in Tampa earlier this month. Plenty was said to support determinism - but it seemed quite irrelevant. The gist seemed to be, in psychology we study causes, so we have to believe in determinism. This is wrong to the point of silly.

Determinism is a belief in the inevitability of causation. Everything that happens is the only possible thing that could happen. The chains and networks of causes are so powerful and inexorable that every outcome is inevitable. We are already locked in to everything else that is going to happen in the entire future of the universe. If you knew all the causal principles and had enough information about the present, you could predict the future with 100% accuracy. The universe resembles a giant machine, grinding alone exactly as it must inevitably continue to do, following rigid rules. That is determinism. To a determinist, there are no counterfactuals. Nothing that didn't happen could possibly have happened. Everything that did happen was the only possible thing that could have happened at that point in time and space, given the causes.

That is why determinism and free will strike most people as incompatible beliefs (even though in recent decades a growing group of philosophers have embraced some form of ‘compatibilism' that preserves a watered-down notion of free will while also embracing determinism). The essence of free will is that the person really could do more than one possible response to a given situation. To a determinist, that is wrong. Causes, including unconscious causes, are operating to bring the person inevitably to what he or she will eventually do. The appearance of multiple options is an illusion, to a determinist. To a determinist, all choice is illusory. The literal meaning of choice is that there are multiple options, and the person selects one of them. Thus, choice requires multiple possible outcomes, which is a no-no to determism. To the determinist, the march of causality will make one outcome inevitable, and so it is wrong to believe that anything else was possible. The chooser does not yet know which option he or she is going to choose, hence the subjective experience of choice. Thus, the subjective choosing is simply a matter of one's own ignorance - ignorance that those other outcomes are not really possibilities at all.

For psychological science, however, a belief in choice seems more plausible and useful than determinism. Choice is fundamental in human life. Every day people face choices, defined by multiple possibilities. To claim that all that is illusion and mistake is to force psychological phenomena into an unrealistic strait jacket. Also, psychological causality as revealed in our labs is arguably never deterministic. Our studies show a change in the odds of one response over another. But changes in the odds entail that more than one response was possible. Our entire statistical enterprise is built on the idea of multiple possibilities.

26. Define a principle of development in psychology. Developmental psychology is a scientific approach which aims to explain how children and adults change over time. A significant proportion of theories within this discipline focus upon development during childhood, as this is the period during an individual's lifespan when the most change occurs.

Developmental psychologists study a wide range of theoretical areas, such as biological, social, emotion, and cognitive processes. Empirical research in this area tends to be dominated by psychologists from Western cultures such as North American and Europe, although during the 1980s Japanese researchers began making a valid contribution to the field. The three goals of developmental psychology are to describe, explain, and to optimize development.

Developmental Psychology study of behavioral changes and continuity from infancy to old age. Much emphasis in psychology has been given to the child and to the deviant personality. Developmental psychology is particularly significant, then, in that it provides for formal study of children and adults at every stage of development through the life span.

Developmental psychology reflects the view that human development and behavior throughout the life span is a function of the interaction between biologically determined factors, such as height or temperament, and environmental influences, such as family, schooling, religion, and culture. Studies of these interactions focus on their consequences for people at different age levels. For example, developmental psychologists are interested in how children who were physically abused by their parents behave when they themselves become parents. Studies, although inconclusive, suggest that abused children often become abusive parents.

Normative development is typically viewed as a continual and cumulative process. However, it should be noted that people can change if important aspects of one's life change. This capacity for change is called plasticity. For example, Rutter (1981) discovered than somber babies living in understaffed orphanages often become cheerful and affectionate when placed in socially stimulating adoptive homes. When trying to explain development, it is important to consider the relative contribution of both nature and nurture. Nature refers to the process of biological maturation inheritance and maturation. Nurture refers to the impact of the environment, which involves the process of learning through experiences. The basic principles of growth and development are physical development, social development and cognitive development. Growth and development in children is nearly always a sequential process. However, negative experiences, such as child abuse or witnessing a traumatic event, can delay the growth and development process.

Physical development includes changes to the size and function of the body, the development of motor skills and a change in appearance. Childhood and early adolescence are the major periods of physical development. However, many changes occur well into adulthood. For example, physical development occurs during pregnancy.

Human development is the process of growth and change that every person goes through in life. People grow and develop at different rates, but mostly follow a general trajectory: people learn to crawl before they walk and to walk before they do cartwheels. Though some people may walk (or do cartwheels) earlier than others, in the end, people generally follow the same script of development.

27. Reveal a principle of integrity of human consciousness and activity. Integrity is the quality of being honest and having strong moral principles; moral uprightness. It is generally a personal choice to hold oneself to consistent moral and ethical standards. In ethics, integrity is regarded by many people as the honesty and truthfulness or accuracy of one's actions. Integrity can stand in opposition to hypocrisy, in that judging with the standards of integrity involves regarding internal consistency as a virtue, and suggests that parties holding within themselves apparently conflicting values should account for the discrepancy or alter their beliefs. The word integrity evolved from the Latin adjective integer, meaning whole or complete.^[3] In this context, integrity is the inner sense of "wholeness" deriving from qualities such as honesty and consistency of character. As such, one may judge that others "have integrity" to the extent that they act according to the values, beliefs and principles they claim to hold.

Significant attention is given to the subject of integrity in law and the conception of law in 20th century philosophy of law and jurisprudence centering in part on the research of Ronald Dworkin as studied in his book Law's Empire. Dworkin's position on integrity in law reinforces the conception of justice viewed as fairness. A value system's abstraction depth and range of applicable interaction may also function as significant factors in identifying integrity due to their congruence or lack of congruence with observation. A value system may evolve in a while, while retaining integrity if those who espouse the values account for and resolve inconsistencies.

Human beings possess the most wonderful of all gifts—reason with its keen insight into the remote past and the future, its penetration into the sphere of the unknown, its world of dreams and fantasy, creative solutions to practical and theoretical problems and the realisation of the most daring plans. As the highest level of human mental activity, consciousness is one of the basic concepts of philosophy, psychology and sociology. The unique nature of this activity lies in the fact that the reflection of reality, and its constructive-creative transformation in the form of sensuous and mental images, concepts and ideas, anticipate practical action by individuals and social groups and give them a goal, an orientation.

Human consciousness is a form of mental activity, the highest form. By mental activity we mean all mental processes, conscious and unconscious, all mental states and qualities of the individual. These are mainly processes of cognition, internal states of the organism, and such attributes of personality as character, temperament, and so on. Mental activity is an attribute of the whole animal world. Consciousness, on the other hand, as the highest form of mental activity, is inherent only in human beings, and even then not at all times or at all levels. It does not exist in the newborn child, in certain categories of the mentally ill, in people who are asleep or in a coma. And even in the developed, healthy and waking individual not all mental activity forms a part of his consciousness; a great portion of it proceeds outside the bounds of consciousness and belongs to the unconscious phenomena of the mind. The content of the activity of consciousness is recorded in artifacts (including language and other sign systems), thus acquiring the form of ideal existence, existence as knowledge, as historical memory. Consciousness also includes an axiological, that is to say, evaluative aspect, which expresses the selectivity of consciousness, its orientation on values evolved by society and accepted by the individual—philosophical, scientific, political, moral, aesthetic, religious, etc. It includes the individual's relation both to these values and to himself, thus becoming a form of self-consciousness, which is also social in origin.

28. Discuss an issue of the psyches’ origin in the process of evolution. Evolutionary psychology (EP) is a theoretical approach in the social and natural sciences that examines psychological structure from a modern evolutionary perspective. It seeks to identify which human psychological traits are evolved adaptations – that is, the functional products of natural selection or sexual selection in human evolution. Adaptationist thinking about physiological mechanisms, such as the heart, lungs, and immune system, is common in evolutionary biology. Some evolutionary psychologists apply the same thinking to psychology, arguing that the modularity of mind is similar to that of the body and with different modular adaptations serving different functions. Evolutionary psychologists argue that much of human behavior is the output of psychological adaptations that evolved to solve recurrent problems in human ancestral environments.

Evolutionary psychology is a theoretical approach to psychology that attempts to explain useful mental and psychological traits—such as memory, perception, or language—as adaptations, i.e., as the functional products of natural selection. The purpose of this approach is to bring the functional way of thinking about biological mechanisms such as the immune system into the field of psychology, and to approach psychological mechanisms in a similar way. In short, evolutionary psychology is focused on how evolution has shaped the mind and behavior. Though applicable to any organism with a nervous system, most research in evolutionary psychology focuses on humans. Evolutionary Psychology proposes that the human brain comprises many functional mechanisms, called psychological adaptations or evolved cognitive mechanisms designed by the process of natural selection.

Examples include language acquisition modules, incest avoidance mechanisms, cheater detection mechanisms, intelligence and sex-specific mating preferences, foraging mechanisms, alliance-tracking mechanisms, agent detection mechanisms, and so on. Evolutionary psychology has roots in cognitive psychology and evolutionary biology. It also draws on behavioral ecology, artificial intelligence, genetics, ethology, anthropology, archaeology, biology, and zoology.

Evolutionary psychology is closely linked to sociobiology, but there are key differences between them including the emphasis on domain-specific rather than domain-general mechanisms, the relevance of measures of current fitness, the importance of mismatch theory, and psychology rather than behaviour.

Many evolutionary psychologists, however, argue that the mind consists of both domain-specific and domain-general mechanisms, especially evolutionary developmental psychologists. Most sociobiological research is now conducted in the field of behavioral ecology. Evolutionary psychology is not a distinct branch of psychology, but rather a theoretical lens that is currently informing all branches of psychology. It is based on a series of logically consistent and well-confirmed premises: (1) that evolutionary processes have sculpted not merely the body, but also the brain, the psychological mechanisms it houses, and the behavior it produces; (2) many of those mechanisms are best conceptualized as psychological adaptations designed to solve problems that historically contributed to survival and reproduction, broadly conceived; (3) psychological adaptations, along with byproducts of those adaptations, are activated in modern environments that differ in some important ways from ancestral environments.

29. Explain various approaches to the question "what is psyches" (, bio-psychism, anthropo-psychism, neuro-psychism). Psycho is a 1960 American psychological horror film directed and produced by Alfred Hitchcock, and written by Joseph Stefano, starring Anthony Perkins, Janet Leigh, John Gavin, Vera Miles and Martin Balsam, and was based on the 1959 novel of the same name by Robert Bloch. The film centers on the encounter between a secretary, Marion Crane (Leigh), who ends up at a secluded motel after stealing money from her employer, and the motel's disturbed owner-manager, Norman Bates (Perkins), and its aftermath.

When originally made, the film was seen as a departure from Hitchcock's previous film North by Northwest, having been filmed on a low budget, with a television crew and in black and white. Psycho initially received mixed reviews, but outstanding box office returns prompted reconsideration which led to overwhelming critical acclaim and four Academy Awardnominations, including Best Supporting Actress for Leigh and Best Director for Hitchcock. Psycho is now considered one of Hitchcock's best films and praised as a work of cinematic art by international film critics and film scholars. Ranked among the greatest films of all time, it set a new level of acceptability for violence, deviant behavior and sexuality in American films,^[6] and is widely considered to be the earliest example of the slasher film genre. Psycho is based on Robert Bloch's 1959 novel of the same name, which was loosely inspired by the case of convicted Wisconsin murderer and grave robber Ed Gein. Both Gein, who lived just 40 miles from Bloch, and the story's protagonist, Norman Bates, were solitary murderers in isolated rural locations. Each had deceased, domineering mothers, had sealed off a room in their home as a shrine to her, and dressed in women's clothes. However, unlike Bates, Gein is not strictly considered a serial killer, having been charged with murder only twice.

 panpsychism is the view that consciousness, mind or soul (psyche) is a universal and primordial feature of all things. Panpsychists see themselves as minds in a world of mind.

Panpsychism is one of the oldest philosophical theories, and has been ascribed to philosophers like Thales, Plato, Spinoza, Leibniz and William James. Panpsychism can also be seen in ancient philosophies such as Stoicism, Taoism, Vedanta and Mahayana Buddhism.

Panpsychism is the doctrine that mind is a fundamental feature of the world which exists throughout the universe. In this entry, we focus on panpsychism as it has been discussed and developed in Western philosophy. Unsurprisingly, each of the key terms, “mind”, “fundamental” and “throughout the universe” is subject to a variety of interpretations by panpsychists, leading to a range of possible philosophical positions.

The synthesis of psychodynamic and neuroscientific data may be advanced by the study of similarly configured specific patterns of defense along continua from the normal and neurotic mental mechanisms of defenses, through what might be termed neuropsychiatric defenses influenced by the neurological state, to the more clearly neurological cortical reactions. These similar patterns and continua are the particularly human way brain adds its flavor of organism to mind, and the way in which all the psychodynamic mechanisms are specifically imbedded in brain. A purely psychological psychodynamics lacking this medical perspective fails to model human mental processes and reflects problems with artificial intelligence models that do not model brain.

30. Distinguish stages of the psyches development throughout evolution of species (elementary-sensory, perceptive, intellectual, consciousness), Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how and why human beings change over the course of their life. Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to include adolescence, adult development, aging, and the entire lifespan. This field examines change across a broad range of topics including: motor skills, cognitive development, executive functions, moral understanding, language acquisition, social change, personality, emotional development, self-concept and identity formation.

Developmental psychology examines the influences of nature and nurture on the process of human development, and processes of change in context and across time. Many researchers are interested in the interaction between personal characteristics, the individual's behavior and environmental factors, including social context and the built environment. Developmental psychology involves a range of fields, such as, educational psychology, child psychopathology, forensic developmental psychology, child development, cognitive psychology, ecological psychology, and cultural psychology. 

The notion of consciousness in the English scientific literature denotes a global ability to consciously perform elementary and intellectual tasks, to reason, plan, judge and retrieve information as well as the awareness of these functions belonging to the self, that is, being self-aware. consciousness can also be defined as continuous awareness of the external and internal environment, of the past and the present. The meaning of consciousness is different in various languages, but it invariably includes, the conscious person is capable to learn, retrieve and use information. Disturbance or loss of consciousness in the Hungarian medical language indicates decreased alertness or arousability rather than the impairment of the complex mental ability. Awareness denotes the spiritual process of perception and analysis of stimuli from the inner and external world. Alertness is a prerequisite of awareness. Clinical observations suggest that the lesions of specific structures of the brain may lead to specific malfunction of consciousness, therefore, consciousness must be the product of neural activity. "Higher functions" of human mental ability have been ascribed to the prefrontal and parietal association cortices. Impaired consciousness in the neurological practice is classified based on tests for conscious behavior and by analyzing the following responses: 1. elementary reactions to sensory stimuli--these are impaired in hypnoid unconsciousness, 2. intellectual reactions to cognitive stimuli--these indicate the impairment of cognitive contents in non-hypnoid unconsciousness.

An intellectual is a person who engages in critical study, thought, and reflection about the reality of society, and proposes solutions for the normative problems of that society, and, by such discourse in the public sphere, he or she gains authority within the public opinion.^[1][2] Coming from the world of culture, either as a creator or as a mediator, the intellectual participates in politics, either to defend a concrete proposition or to denounce an injustice, usually by producing or by extending an ideology, and by defending a system of values.

If someone calls you perceptive, they mean you are good at understanding things or figuring things out. Perceptive people are insightful, intelligent, and able to see what others cannot. Perceive means "to see"; so, perceptive is a word to describe someone who is good at seeing. Perceptive is derived from the Latin word percipere which means "to obtain or gather." A perceptive person is good at gathering information and using her senses to take in the world. If you are upset but trying to hide it, a perceptive person is the one who will notice.

31. Describe basic functions of human consciousness (purposive, combination of knowledge, stating relations, self-establishing).Consciousness is the state or quality of awareness, or, of being aware of an external object or something within oneself. It has been defined as: sentience, awareness, subjectivity, the ability to experience or to feel, wakefulness, having a sense of selfhood, and the executive control system of the mind. Despite the difficulty in definition, many philosophers believe that there is a broadly shared underlying intuition about what consciousness is. As Max Velmans and Susan Schneider wrote in The Blackwell Companion to Consciousness: "Anything that we are aware of at a given moment forms part of our consciousness, making conscious experience at once the most familiar and most mysterious aspect of our lives." The purposive approach (sometimes referred to as purposivism, purposive construction, purposive interpretation, or the "modern principle in construction")is an approach to statutory and constitutional interpretation under which common law courts interpret an enactment (i.e., a statute, part of a statute, or a clause of a constitution) in light of the purpose for which it was enacted.

The historical source of purposive interpretation is the mischief rule established in Heydon's Case. Purposive interpretation was introduced as a form of replacement for the mischief rule, the plain meaning rule and the golden rule to determine cases. Purposive interpretation is exercised when the courts utilize extraneous materials from the pre-enactment phase of legislation, including early drafts, hansards, committee reports, and white papers. The purposive interpretation involves a rejection of the exclusionary rule.

Critics of purposivism argue it fails to recognize the separation of powers between the legislator and the judiciary.The legislator is responsible for the creating the law, while the judiciary is responsible for interpreting law. As purposive interpretation goes beyond the words within the statute, considerable power is bestowed upon the judges as they look to extraneous materials for aid in interpreting the law. The psychology of self is the study of either the cognitive, conative or affective representation of one's identity or the subject of experience. The earliest formulation of the self in modern psychology derived from the distinction between the self as I, the subjective knower, and the self as Me, the object that is known.

Current views of the self in psychology position the self as playing an integral part in human motivation, cognition, affect, and social identity.It may be the case that we can now usefully attempt to ground experience of self in a neural process with cognitive consequences, which will give us insight into the elements of which the complex multiply situated selves of modern identity are composed.

The self has many facets that help make up integral parts of it, such as self-awareness, self-esteem, self-knowledge, and self-perception. All parts of the self enable people to alter, change, add, and modify aspects of themselves in order to gain social acceptance in society. "Probably the best account of the origins of selfhood is that the self comes into being at the interface between the inner biological processes of the human body and the sociocultural network to which the person belongs.

32. Reveal differences between animals' behavior and human conscious activity. Animal behaviour, the concept, broadly considered, referring to everything animals do, including movement and other activities and underlying mental processes. Human fascination with animal behaviour probably extends back millions of years, perhaps even to times before the ancestors of the species became human in the modern sense. Initially, animals were probably observed for practical reasons because early human survival depended on knowledge of animal behaviour. Whether hunting wild game, keeping domesticated animals, or escaping an attacking predator, success required intimate knowledge of an animal’s habits. Even today, information about animal behaviour is of considerable importance. For example, in Britain, studies on the social organization and the ranging patterns of badgers (Meles meles) have helped reduce the spread of tuberculosis among cattle, and studies of sociality in foxes (Vulpes vulpes) assist in the development of models that predict how quickly rabies would spread should it ever cross the English Channel. Likewise in Sweden, where collisions involving moose (Alces alces) are among the most common traffic accidents in rural areas, research on moose behaviour has yielded ways of keeping them off roads and verges. In addition, investigations of the foraging of insect pollinators, such as honeybees, have led to impressive increases in agricultural crop yields throughout the world.

Consciousness is the state or quality of awareness, or, of being aware of an external object or something within oneself. It has been defined as: sentience, awareness, subjectivity, the ability to experience or to feel, wakefulness, having a sense of selfhood, and the executive control system of the mind. hanks to recent developments in technology, consciousness has become a significant topic of research in psychology, neuropsychology and neuroscience within the past few decades. The primary focus is on understanding what it means biologically and psychologically for information to be present in consciousness—that is, on determining the neural and psychological correlates of consciousness. The majority of experimental studies assess consciousness by asking human subjects for a verbal report of their experiences (e.g., "tell me if you notice anything when I do this"). Issues of interest include phenomena such as subliminal perception, blindsight, denial of impairment, and altered states of consciousness produced by alcohol and other drugs, or spiritual or meditative techniques.

Consciousness has always been a tricky topic to broach scientifically. After all, science deals specifically with effects that can be observed and described mathematically, and consciousness has heretofore successfully evaded all such efforts. In most serious scientific circles, merely mentioning consciousness might result in the rescinding of your credentials and immediate exile to the land of quacks and occultists.

But clearly, consciousness — or sentience or soul or whatever else you call the joie de vivre that makes humans human — is a topic that isn’t going away. It’s probably awfully pretentious of us to think that consciousness is the unique reserve of humans — but hey, evolution handed us these giant, self-aware brains, and so we’re going to try our damnedest to work out whether consciousness is a real thing — whether our brains really are tied into some kind of quantum realm — or if we’re all just subject to an incredibly complex Matrix-like simulation put on by our hyper-imaginative and much-too-powerful human brain.

33. Distinguish cognitive phenomena in the functional system of the psyches. Cognitive psychology is the study of mental processes such as "attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, creativity, and thinking." Much of the work derived from cognitive psychology has been integrated into various other modern disciplines of psychological study, including educational psychology, social psychology, personality psychology, abnormal psychology, developmental psychology, and economics.

Cognitive Phenomena can be classified as "complex" phenomena because they typically involve the spontaneous emergence of "concepts" or "ideas" which are formulated out of "thoughts" or "feelings" that are holistic in nature. Unlike colorful distortions of raw perception from our sensory cortices or the emergence of primal impulses from our emotional brain, Cognitive Phenomena are typically defined in terms of "expanded states" of consciousness, the production of "novel memes," and the shifting or shattering of the "paradigms" through which we view reality. Cognitive Phenomena are tied closely to both concepts of self as well as the basic logic and language functions of the brain (which would be located in the prefrontal cortex), but they also rely on areas of our brain responsible for more intuitive, loosely-associative interpretations of data. Because of this, Cognitive Phenomena may seem cryptic, paradoxical, and grand in scope; the states are often described in spiritual terms of mystical awareness and metaphysical awakening; and reports from users all over the world often use the same language metaphors to describe various states of "expanded consciousness." And since Cognitive Phenomena emerge into both the "mind" and into the culture arena as fully-formed as experiential "concepts" or "ideas," they are arguably the most powerful, transformative, and easy-to-translate artifacts of the psychedelic experience.

Several aspects of human cognition are particularly suggestive of the kinds of neural mechanisms described in this text. We briefly describe some of the most important of these aspects here to further motivate and highlight the connections between cognition and neurobiology. However, as you will discover, these aspects of cognition are perhaps not the most obvious to the average person. Our introspections into the nature of our own cognition tend to emphasize the ``conscious'' aspects (because this is by definition what we are aware of), which appear to be serial (one thought at a time) and focused on a subset of things occurring inside and outside the brain. This fact undoubtedly contributed to the popularity of the standard serial computer model for understanding human cognition, which we will use as a point of comparison for the discussion that follows. Attempts to understand cognition by only focusing on what's ``above water'' may be difficult, because all the underwater stuff is necessary to keep the tip above water in the first place -- otherwise, the whole thing will just sink! To push this metaphor to its limits, the following are a few illuminating shafts of light down into this important underwater realm, and some ideas about how they keep the ``tip'' afloat. The aspects of cognition we will discuss are:

• Parallelism

• Gradedness

• Interactivity

• Competition

• Learning

              

34. Denote regulative phenomena in the functional system of the psyches. Phenomenology is the study of subjective experience. It is an approach to psychological subject matter that has its roots in the philosophical work of Edmund Husserl. Early phenomenologists such as Husserl, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Maurice Merleau-Ponty conducted philosophical investigations of consciousness in the early 20th century.

The experiencing subject can be considered to be the person or self, for purposes of convenience. In phenomenological philosophy (and in particular in the work of Husserl, Heidegger, and Merleau-Ponty), "experience" is a considerably more complex concept than it is usually taken to be in everyday use. Instead, experience (or being, or existence itself) is an "in-relation-to" phenomenon, and it is defined by qualities of directedness, embodiment, and worldliness, which are evoked by the term "Being-in-the-World".

The quality or nature of a given experience is often referred to by the term qualia, whose archetypical exemplar is "redness". For example, we might ask, "Is my experience of redness the same as yours?" While it is difficult to answer such a question in any concrete way, the concept of intersubjectivity is often used as a mechanism for understanding how it is that humans are able to empathise with one another's experiences, and indeed to engage in meaningful communication about them. The phenomenological formulation of Being-in-the-World, where person and world are mutually constitutive, is central here.

Cognition is a broad term that deals with organisms' ability to gather, process, store and respond to knowledge. Perceiving, thinking, speaking, understanding, feeling emotions, memorizing, recalling memories and judging are all cognitive phenomena. Attention, reasoning, learning and problem solving are also phenomena studied within the field of cognitive psychology. Sensation and perception are fundamental concepts in psychology. Sensation underlies organisms' ability to experience external reality, while perception allows organisms to interpret external stimuli. Perception is a cognitive phenomenon.

Certain senses are tactile, meaning that contact with stimuli is necessary in order to sense the stimuli. Smell, taste and touch are the three tactile senses. Smell and taste are chemical senses, meaning that they intercept chemical stimuli from the environment and send the information to the brain for perceptual processing, such as identification, judgment and psychological response. Touch is a sense that is based on the nervous system making contact with stimuli. Vision is that ability to sense light, and hearing is the ability so sense vibrations and pressure changes.

A model for light-induced charge separation in a donor-acceptor system of the reaction center of photosynthetic bacteria is described. This description is predicated on a self-regulation of the flow of photo-activated electrons due to self-consistent, slow structural rearrangements of the macromolecule. Effects of the interaction between the separated charges and the slow structural modes of the biomolecule may accumulate during multiple, sequential charge transfer events. This accumulation produces non-linear dynamic effects on system function, providing a regulation of the charge separation efficiency. For a biomolecule with a finite number of different charge-transfer states, the quasi-stationary populations of these states with a localized electron on different cofactors may deviate from a Lagmuir law dependence with actinic light intensity. Such deviations are predicted by the model to be due to light-induced structural changes. The theory of self-regulation developed here assumes that light-induced changes in the effective adiabatic potential occur along a slow structural coordinate. In this model, a "light-adapted" conformational state appears when bifurcation produces a new minimum in the adiabatic potential. In this state, the lifetime of the charge-separated state may be quite different from that of the "dark-adapted" conformation. The results predicted by this theory agree with previously obtained experimental results on photosynthetic reaction centers.

35. Reveal basic categories of psychological science proposed by M.G. Yaroshevsky (action, image, motive, personality, psycho-social relation). There are common-sense as well as technical uses of the term “personality.” It is common sense to observe a person over time, to note that he is consistently aggressive or dominant or submissive, and to think of personality as the aggregate oftraits such as these. It is also common sense to think of personality as what is referred to when a person uses the pronoun “I.” Both of these conceptions have much in common with, but neither is the same thing as, personality as it is defined by most specialists in the field. Not all consistency of behavior can be ascribed to personality. The characteristic aggressiveness of a person, for example, may be due not so much to a persisting disposition of personality as to the fact that the person is constantly in a situation so frustrating that it would evoke aggressive behavior in anyone.

Personality, then, refers not to observable behavior itself but to dispositions that lie behind behavior. Observed consistencies in overt behavior and individuals’ reports about themselves are important bases for inferences about personality, but, as will be shown, the study of personality requires that these sources of information be supplemented by the use of special techniques. In the view of most students of the subject, the dispositions of personality constitute an organized totality, a more or less enduring structure that interacts with an environment.

Motivation is one of the most frequently used words in psychology. It refers to the factors which move or activate the organism. We infer the presence of motivation when we see that people work toward certain goals. For example, we might observe that a student works hard at almost every task that comes to him/her; from this we infer that the person has motive to achieve. All human behaviour appears to arise in response to some form of internal (physiological) or external (environmental) stimulation. The behaviours, however, are not random. They often involve some purpose or goal. It is often held that behaviours take place as a result of the arousal of certain motives. Thus motivation can be defined as the process of activating, maintaining and directing behaviour towards a particular goal. The process is usually terminated once the desired goal is attained by the person.

Imagery is simply the formation of any mental pictures. This simple process has great benefit when it comes to memory. By using imagery, we can enhance the processing of information into the memory system. For example, trying to remember a phone number by repeating it in your head is a common method, but what might enhance your processing of the information might be to use imagery - maybe visualize the numbers being written on a chalk board. This allows you to create a mental picture of the numbers that may be processed more completely.

36. Describe basic features of human activity and its psychological content.The concept of activity in psychology implies a multi-level human interaction with the outside world, aimed at meeting their needs. In the course of this interaction in the subject there are certain relationships with the environment and other members of the society, which, in turn, have a direct impact on the nature and form of this activity. In the process of its development, every single person realizes himself in all three core activities: play, study and work, and the important role played in this communication, as an essential element characterizing the degree of the individual`s ability to coexist comfortably with its surroundings. In general, communication and work in psychology has always been considered as the main components affecting the current psychological state. Depending on them in the subject there is a certain positive or negative reflectivity response to various stimuli coming from the outside world, which, in turn, has an impact on the activities of other members of society, and hence to the development of society as a whole.

On the planet earth there are uncountable lives living,including us,"The Brainy human beings". What differs us from all others is just a smallest part of our body,Brain.We,the humans have proved it by doing some intelligent and foolish activitiesWe can have a overlook to our daily life routine and a wise person who has all the knowledge about what he is using and what its made of will give us the shocking thought about the misuse we are doing. Stating some examples like using the toothpaste to using the eyecathy lather shoes. Even there could be also some things where animals might be the thing potentially getting used and we might dont even know.The day and night running industries,which flows out the gases which can even harm us,then what about animals.The gigantic seas,the all day flowing rivers,which is home for too many animals are jst the dumping ground for industries whithout even the thought of the lives living inside.These are all the concerning points which are affecting the existency of the living creatues.Though it is a very serious concern about the existence of the chain which is running through for the survival of all the ones living on the earth,i dont see the steps taking towards it. After all we are the ones who has a pretty brain and also the mighty heart,who will think if we will not. Lets take a step forward all together and think a little bit about our gifted frinds by the all mighty.

Human activities have a great influence on the Earth, both good ones and bad ones. People try to make their life better by changing the Earth but these activities also cause a lot of troubles to our natural mother – the Earth.Since people have appeared on the Earth, we have always attempted to have a more comfortable and convenient life. We have invented a lot of new machines, which make great contributions to the agriculture and industry development. The productivity and the quality of the products are improved; therefore, famines or starvations are decreased. Many types of plants and animals are being researched to spring up the productivity and add more species to the variety of nature. However, all of these things just do human good and they are also followed by many consequences. After considering the bright side of human activities, we can easily observe from that a number of bad effects. The industrial activities and automobiles have sent a large amount of poisonous gas to our atmosphere. Trashes are thrown into the river with thoughtlessness. These are evidences of the pollution of the environment. In addition, these activities lead to the climate changes with some signals like temperature rising, icebergs melting. A lot of animals have become extinct because of the changes in climate, the deforestation and the hunters who seek for them everywhere. The Earth is becoming worse and worse and if people continue to act like that, we will lose our planet.

37. Denote needs, motives and goals as preconditions of behavior and activity. Behavior is the range of actions and mannerisms made by individuals, organisms, systems, or artificial entities in conjunction with themselves or their environment, which includes the other systems or organisms around as well as the (inanimate) physical environment. It is the response of the system or organism to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt or covert, and voluntary or involuntary. Taking a behavior informatics perspective, a behavior consists of behavior actor, operation, interactions, and their properties. A behavior can be represented as a behavior vector. Although there is some disagreement as to how to precisely define behavior in a biological context, one common interpretation based on a meta-analysis of scientific literature states that "behavior is the internally coordinated responses (actions or inactions) of whole living organisms (individuals or groups) to internal and/or external stimuli"

A broader definition of behavior, applicable to plants and other organisms, is similar to the concept of phenotypic plasticity. It describes behavior as a response to an event or environment change during the course of the lifetime of an individual, differing from other physiological or biochemical changes that occurs much rapidly, and excluding changes that are result of development (ontogeny). Behaviors can be either innate or learned. Behavior can be regarded as any action of an organism that changes its relationship to its environment. Behavior provides outputs from the organism to the environmen

Human behavior is believed to be influenced by the endocrine system and the nervous system. It is most commonly believed that complexity in the behavior of an organism is correlated to the complexity of its nervous system. Generally, organisms with more complex nervous systems have a greater capacity to learn new responses and thus adjust their behavior.

Consumer behavior refers to the processes consumers go through, and reactions they have towards products or services (Dowhan, 2013). It is to do with consumption, and the processes consumers go through around purchasing and consuming goods and services.

Activity theory  an umbrella term for a line of eclectic social sciences theories and research with its roots in the Soviet psychological activity theory pioneered by Lev Vygotsky, Alexei Leont'ev and Sergei Rubinstein. These scholars sought to understand human activities as systemic and socially situated phenomena and to go beyond paradigms of reflexology (the teaching of Vladimir Bekhterev and his followers) and physiology of higher nervous activity (the teaching of Ivan Pavlov and his school), psychoanalysis and behaviorism. It became one of the major psychological approaches in the former USSR, being widely used in both theoretical and applied psychology, and in education, professional training, ergonomics, social psychology and work psychology.

Activity theory is more of a descriptive meta-theory or framework than a predictive theory. It considers an entire work/activity system (including teams, organizations, etc.) beyond just one actor or user. It accounts for environment, history of the person, culture, role of the artifact, motivations, and complexity of real life activity.

38. Distinguish actions, operations, abilities and skills in the structure of human activity.The concept of activity in psychology implies a multi-level human interaction with the outside world, aimed at meeting their needs. In the course of this interaction in the subject there are certain relationships with the environment and other members of the society, which, in turn, have a direct impact on the nature and form of this activity. In the process of its development, every single person realizes himself in all three core activities: play, study and work, and the important role played in this communication, as an essential element characterizing the degree of the individual`s ability to coexist comfortably with its surroundings. In general, communication and work in psychology has always been considered as the main components affecting the current psychological state. Depending on them in the subject there is a certain positive or negative reflectivity response to various stimuli coming from the outside world, which, in turn, has an impact on the activities of other members of society, and hence to the development of society as a wholeAbilities are individual-psychological characteristics of personality a prerequisite for the successful implementation of one or other productive activities. Abilities are discovered in the process of mastering activities, how the individual under other equal conditions quickly and thoroughly, easily and firmly learns the ways of its organization and implementation. They are closely related with the General thrust of identity, how resistant the propensity of a person to a particular activity.

Each of the above representations to a certain extent reveals the essence of human abilities, they are given a variety of characteristics, they are a set of mental properties and qualities, are considered as individualobservations features relevant to the successful activity; reported psychological formation, properties, ensuring the success of the activities and much more. Thus, the problem of abilities is one of the most challenging in psychology, a history of domestic science, there is no unity in understanding abilities, and therefore, in the terminology they prefer.

Abilities in psychology are often associated with terms such as "talent" and "genius."This comparison is justified because if you help a child to develop their skills, improve them, after a certain period of time it is possible to say about him that he is gifted.For example, if a preschooler interested in painting or music, he likes to do it, you should think about how to define it in a circle, in order to develop skills.

In psychology achievements are the result of talented human well-coordinated work of its neuropsychiatric features and direct the activity itself.That is why such people are more distracted, nesobrannosti constantly distracted.But when circumstances so require, they are easy to mobilize all their efforts to achieve good results precisely in their own endowments. Since these are the qualities that the individual is fairly easy to acquire knowledge and successful in any activity, we can talk about some of their inherent nature, a genetic predisposition.This does not remain without attention and the process of developing these skills.Not quite right to talk about the human capacity for art, if not addicted to trying to draw, because only in the process of systematic training this kind of activity you can find out the truth about their presence or absence.

39. Describe emotions, feelings and volition in the system of psychical activity. Emotion, in everyday speech, is any relatively brief conscious experience characterized by intense mental activity and a high degree of pleasure or displeasure. Scientific discourse has drifted to other meanings and there is no consensus on a definition. Emotion is often intertwined with mood, temperament, personality, disposition, and motivation. In some theories, cognition is an important aspect of emotion. Those acting primarily on the emotions they are feeling may seem as if they are not thinking, but mental processes are still essential, particularly in the interpretation of events. For example, the realization of our believing that we are in a dangerous situation and the subsequent arousal of our body's nervous system (rapid heartbeat and breathing, sweating, muscle tension) is integral to the experience of our feeling afraid. Other theories, however, claim that emotion is separate from and can precede cognition. Emotions are complex. According to some theories, they are a state of feeling that results in physical and psychological changes that influence our behavior. The physiology of emotion is closely linked to arousal of the nervous system with various states and strengths of arousal relating, apparently, to particular emotions. Emotion is also linked to behavioral tendency. Extroverted people are more likely to be social and express their emotions, while introverted people are more likely to be more socially withdrawn and conceal their emotions. Emotion is often the driving force behind motivation, positive or negative. According to other theories, emotions are not causal forces but simply syndromes of components, which might include motivation, feeling, behavior, and physiological changes, but no one of these components is the emotion. Nor is the emotion an entity that causes these components.

Feeling is the nominalization of the verb to feel. The word was first used in the English language to describe the physical sensation of touch through either experience or perception. The word is also used to describe experiences other than the physical sensation of touch, such as "a feeling of warmth" and of sentience in general. In Latin, sentire meant to feel, hear or smell. In psychology, the word is usually reserved for the conscious subjective experience of emotion. Phenomenology and hetero phenomenology are philosophical approaches that provide some basis for knowledge of feelings. Many schools of psychotherapy depend on the therapist achieving some kind of understanding of the client's feelings, for which methodologies exist.

People buy products in hopes that the product will make them feel a certain way: either happy, excited or beautiful. Some people buy beauty products in hopes of achieving a state of happiness or a sense of self beauty. Past events are used in our lives to form schemas in our minds, and based on those past experiences, we expect our lives to follow a certain script.

Volition or will is the cognitive process by which an individual decides on and commits to a particular course of action. It is defined as purposive striving, and is one of the primary human psychological functions (the others being affection [affect or feeling], motivation [goals and expectations] and cognition [thinking]). Volitional processes can be applied consciously, and they can be automatized as habits over time. When we have "made up our minds" (as we say) to a thing, i.e., have a settled state of choice respecting it, that state is called an immanent volition; when we put forth any particular act of choice, that act is called an emanant, or executive, or imperative, volition. When an immanent or settled state of choice controls or governs a series of actions, we call that state a predominant volition; while we give the name of subordinate volitions to those particular acts of choice which carry into effect the object sought for by the governing or "predominant volition".

40. Find out psychological peculiarities of child's gaming activity. Development of the Central nervous system characterized by the accelerated formation of morphological and physiological traits. Thus, the surface of the brain child of six is already more than 90% of the size of the cerebral cortex of an adult. Vigorously develop the frontal lobes of the brain; children of the senior preschool age are aware of the sequence of events, understand complex generalization. In this age being improved basic processes: agitation, and especially braking, and somewhat easier in this period formed all kinds of conditional braking. Job's children, based on braking wise dose as generation brake reactions accompanied by a change in heart rate, breathing, a significant load on the nervous system.

Age of 5-6 years is a phase of intensive mental development. At this age occur progressive changes in all spheres ranging from the improvement of the psycho-physiological functions and ending with the appearance of complex personal tumors. In the sphere of sensations there is a significant reduction of the thresholds of all kinds of sensitivity. Increased differentiation of perception. A special role in the development of perception in the preschool age is the transition from the use of the subject images to touch standards - generally accepted notions about the main types of each property. The six-year-old age develops a clear perception of selectivity in relation to social facilities. Despite significant shifts in development prevailing throughout the preschool age is involuntary attention. Even senior preschoolers hard to focus on something monotonous. And in the process of interest to their games can be fairly stable. Age patterns are observed in the process of development of memory. Memory in the preschool age is involuntary in nature. Baby remembers that represents the greatest interest, will give the best possible experience. Thus, the volume of recorded material is largely determined by the emotional attitude to the subject or phenomenon.

In children 5-6 years of dynamic stereotypes that make up the biological basis of skills and habits are formed quite quickly, but the rebuilding of their difficult that indicates a lack of mobility of nervous processes. Development of spatial representations of the child to six to seven years, reaches a high level. For children this age, characterized by attempts to conduct the analysis of spatial situations. In development of the main properties of perception is characterized by two contradictory trends. On the one hand, growth of integrity, and with another - is manifested drilling and structuring of perceptual image. By the end of preschool age comes the ability to isolate the shape of the object. To 6 years, children begin to deal with the task of laying out without contour of the figure, for example, mushroom houses. Younger children solution of this problem is practically unavailable.

41. Signify psychological role of learning activity. Learning activity is any activity carried out in the process of interaction (teacher and students) in order to achieve learning objectives. Activity is meant here the emphasis is on students, because the presence of student activities in the learning process will impact the creation of active learning situation.

Research suggests that considering the following interrelated elements when designing and implementing learning activities may help increase student engagement behaviorally, emotionally, and cognitively, thereby positively affecting student learning and achievement.

Make it meaningful. To ensure that activities are personally meaningful, we can, for example, connect them with students' previous knowledge and experiences, highlighting the value of an assigned activity in personally relevant ways. Also, adult or expert modeling can help to demonstrate why an individual activity is worth pursuing, and when and how it is used in real life.

Foster a Sense of Competence. To strengthen students' sense of competence in learning activities, the assigned activities could: ~Be only slightly beyond students' current levels of proficiency; ~Make students demonstrate understanding throughout the activity; ~Show peer coping models (i.e. students who struggle but eventually succeed at the activity) and peer mastery models (i.e. students who try and succeed at the activity); ~Include feedback that helps students to make progress

Provide Autonomy Support. Autonomy support can be implemented by: ~Welcoming students' opinions and ideas into the flow of the activity; ~Using informational, non-controlling language with students; ~Giving students the time they need to understand and absorb an activity by themselves

Embrace Collaborative Learning. Collaborative learning is another powerful facilitator of engagement in learning activities. When students work effectively with others, their engagement may be amplified as a result, mostly due to experiencing a sense of connection to others during the activities. To make group work more productive, strategies can be implemented to ensure that students know how to communicate and behave in that setting.

Establish Positive Teacher-Student Relationships. Teacher-student relationships can be facilitated by: ~Caring about students' social and emotional needs; ~Displaying positive attitudes and enthusiasm; ~Increasing one-on-one time with students; ~Treating students fairly; ~Avoiding deception or promise-breaking

Promote Mastery Orientations. To encourage mastery orientation mindset, we should consider various approaches, such as framing success in terms of learning (e.g. criterion-referenced) rather than performing (e.g. obtaining a good grade). You can also place the emphasis on individual progress by reducing social comparison (e.g. making grades private) and recognizing student improvement and effort.

42. Denote specific features of creative activity. In psychology, creative activity is interpreted as a complex characteristic of the person, are formed on the basis of a relatively high level of development of general and specific abilities and manifested in successful professional activity, at a high level of motivation and relevant socio-psychological installations, as well as in features of the intellectual and personal characteristics. Creative activity is one of the essential properties of the personality through which most completely manifested the individual, special in the psychological organization of personality. With regard to activity this special finds its highest expression in the originality of decision of one or another research or practical problems. You can select the following components, which determine the creative activity of the person: ~Ability of the personality to allocate the principle underlying at the basis of any construction, and use it in the new conditions. For creative personality characteristic feature is receptivity to new ideas, creative boldness, curiosity, observation, ability to overcome stereotypes, specialized "transfer" of decision methods from the problem to a problem when solving completely new problems; ~Suitability of external posed problems (technical, scientific, research, management) to psychological attitude of the personality. In most cases, the problem is socially motivated, i.e. perceived as public concern subject; ~ Ability of the personality to identify the so-called "search zone", on its own initiative to go beyond the initially intended field of study, to search and find problems, to find constructive methods which are rationalized activities.

In the formation process of creative activity there are following sequential stages: ~"Embryonic" stage, on which happens the emergence of any creative idea, often still very vague; ~the actual initial stage, on which happens concretization of the concept, formulation of the problem and identification of possible ways to solve it;

~ the first stage of design of the concept, in which evaluates the effectiveness of the selected solution methods, analyzed the problem itself, collects and analyzes information; ~ the main design stage, when hypothesize is carried out too much  various assumptions, people consciously engaged in solving of creative problems. Exactly at this stage often occur moments of "creative inspiration", accompanied by the relevant mental states on the background of emotional recovery; ~ the final stage, when happens the final design, "crystallization" of elaborated ideas, estimation of efficiency of achieved results, analyzed correspondence of the posed

purposes and end product.

43. Define psychological nature of sensation and its peculiarities. Sensation is the process that allows our brains to take in information via our five senses, which can then be experienced and interpreted by the brain. Sensation occurs thanks to our five sensory systems: vision, hearing, taste, smell and touch. Each of these systems maintains unique neural pathways with the brain, which allows them to transfer information from the environment to the brain very rapidly.

The most prominent feature by which sensations of the same or different senses are distinguished from each other, is that of quality.

The sensations of sound are thus of a generically different quality from those of smell, while the feeling of blue is of a specifically distinct quality from that of red. These states may also vary in tone, or pleasurableness and painfulness.

Besides differing in quality, sensations may also vary in intensity, and duration.

By the intensity of a sensation is understood its vividness, its greater or less strength in consciousness. The degree of intensity depends partly on the force of the objective stimulus, and partly on the vigour of attention.

The duration of a sensation means obviously the length of time during which it persists in existence. This is determined mainly by the continuance of the stimulus. The duration of the sensation is not, however, always either equal to or simultaneous with that of the stimulus. A certain brief interval is always required between the irritation of the organ and the birth of the mental state, and the latter continues for a shorter or longer period after the cessation of the former. A certain lapse of time is consequently necessary between two successive excitations in order that there be two distinct sensations. Thus, in the case of sight, if the action of the stimulus be repeated oftener than five times in the second, it ceases to be apprehended as a series of separate events, and instead, one continuous sensation is aroused. The ear can distinguish as many as fifteen successive vibrations in the second, while the recuperative power of taste and smell, after each excitation, is far lower than that of sight.

44. Explain various classifications of sensations. Sensation is an ability of an organism to accept stimuli from external and internal environment.

The systematic classification of sensations, which is based on the place of originating of stimuli: ~Interoceptive sensation is signalling about the state of internal processes of the organism it brings to the brain stimuli from the walls of stomach and intestines, heart and circulatory system and other internal organs.; ~Proprioceptive sensations provide signals about body position in space and constitute the afferent basis of human movement, playing a crucial role in their regulation. The peripheral receptors of proprioceptive sensitivity are found in the muscles and joints (tendons, ligaments) and have the form of specific nerve bodies. ~ The third and largest group of sensations are Exteroceptive sensations. They brings to the person information from the outside world and are major group of sensations which linking the person with the environment. All group of Exteroceptive sensations must be conditionally divided into two groups: contact and distant sensations.

The contact sensations are caused by the influence of directly applied to the body surface and the corresponding perceived body. Examples of contact sensations are the taste and touch.

Distant sensations caused by stimuli acting on the organs of sense at some distance. These sensations are smelling and, especially, hearing and vision.

Genetic Classification of sensation, which is based on biological principle of originating of sensation: ~Protopatical (vital, nociceptive, thalamic). This ancient sensation is typical for the primitive nervous system of our ancestors; ~Epicritical sensation is connected with cortex and it is based on the differentiation of stimuli according to their modality, intensity, localization etc.

45. Denote significance of perception in reflection and cognitive activity. Perception can be defined as our recognition and interpretation of sensory information. Perception also includes how we respond to the information.

Perception is a process of receiving, selecting, organising, interpreting, checking and reacting to stimuli. This is like an input-through put-output process in which the stimuli can be considered as 'inputs' transformation of 'input' through selection, organization and interpretation as 'through puts' and the ultimate behaviour/action as 'output'. The whole perceptional process can be presented as follows : These are explained one by one.

Receiving Stimuli : The first process in the perception is the presence of stimuli. The stimuli are received from the various sources. Through the five organs. It is a physiological aspect of perception process. Stimuli may be external to us (such as sound waves) and inside us (such as energy generation by muscles).

Selection of Stimuli : After receiving the stimuli or data, some are selected. Others are screened out. Two types of factors affect selection of stimuli for processing : external and internal factors. External factors relate to stimuli such as intensity of stimuli, its size, movement, repetition, etc. Internal factors, relate to the perceiver such as his/her age, learning, interest, etc. Normally, he will select the objects which interest him and will avoid that for which he is indifferent. This is also called 'selective perception'.

Organization of Stimuli :Organising the bits of information into a meaningful whole is called "organization". There are three ways by which the selected data, i.e., inputs are organised. These are :

Grouping: In grouping, the perceiver groups the various stimuli on the basis of their similarity or proximity. For example, all the workers coming from the same place may be perceived as similar on the basis of proximity.

Closure: When faced with incomplete information, people fill up the gaps themselves to make the information meaningful. This may be done on the basis of past experience, past data, or hunches. For example, in many advertisement, alphabets are written by putting electric bulbs indicating the shape of the concerned alphabets but broken lines. In such cases, people tend to fill up the gap among different bulbs to get meaning out of these.

Simplification: People identify main stimulus features and assesses how they are organized. He interprets a stimulus situation, the perceiver simples the information.

Cognitive activity as a pedagogical phenomenon is a two sided interconnected process: on the one hand, it is a form of self-organization and self-realization of learner, on the other hand is the result of special efforts of teacher in the organization of cognitive activity of learner.

46. Distinguish peculiarities of perception (orienting on object, integrity, constancy, meaningfulness). Perception is the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information in order to represent and understand the environment. All perception involves signals in the nervous system, which in turn result from physical or chemical stimulation of the sense organs. For example, vision involves light striking the retina of the eye, smell is mediated by odor molecules, and hearing involves pressure waves. Perception is not the passive receipt of these signals, but is shaped by learning, memory, expectation, and attention. 

Objectivity of perception is reflected in the so-called act of objectification, i.e. referring to the information received from the external world, to this world. Objectivity without being an innate quality, performs orienting.

Perceptual constancy is the ability of perceptual systems to recognize the same object from widely varying sensory inputs. For example, individual people can be recognized from views, such as frontal and profile, which form very different shapes on the retina. One kind of perceptual constancy is color constancy: for example, a white piece of paper can be recognized as such under different colors and intensities of light.

Integrity - sensations reflect the individual properties of objects, the perception is only complete image, formed on the basis of generalization of knowledge about individual properties, quality, produced in the form of individual sensations. The internal organic relationship of _ parts and the whole in the image. It is necessary to consider two aspects of this property: ~association the various elements as a whole; ~the independence of the whole formed by the quality of its constituent elements.

Structurally. With the integrity of perception is connected and its structural. Perception is largely not meet our momentary feelings and is not a simple sum of them. We actually perceive abstracted from these sensations generalized structure that is formed in for some time.

Meaningful - although the perception occurs as a result of direct impact of the stimulus on the receptors, perceptual images have a certain meaning. The perception is closely connected with thinking, understanding the essence of the object that allows us to call it mentally.

47. Present psychological phenomenon of memory and its functions. The study of human memory has been a subject of science and philosophy for thousands of years and has become one of the major topics of interest within cognitive psychology.

Memory is the process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved.

Encoding means to receive or attend to information. When you are the one who determines the pace at which information is received and the task is a familiar one (e.g., reading a newspaper article), then the ability to encode information does not seem to change with age.

In contrast, encoding skills decline with age when the task is unfamiliar or when the pace of delivery of information occurs quickly.

Storage. Your brain has a certain capacity to store information. Information that has been encoded or learned is held in storage for anywhere from a brief period of time ('sensory memory'), such as a few seconds, to a few minutes, ('short-term memory') to years ('long-term memory') to decades ('remote memory'). Older adults typically show some age-related loss in long-term memory but not in sensory, short-term, or remote memory.

Retrieval. refers to the process of recalling information on demand. There are age-related changes in the retrieval process with older adults typically having greater difficulty spontaneously recalling information without any cues. When aided by cues, however, older adults show similar capability as younger adults in the process of memory retrieval.

48. Clarify various reasons of memory forms classification. Memory is our ability to recollect, store and retain experiences and information we pick up in the course of our lives.

The process of encoding a memory begins when we are born and occurs continuously. For something to become a memory, it must first be picked up by one or more of our senses.

When it comes to classification of memories, there are three main categories: ~Sensory memory ~Short-term memory ~Long-term memory

Sensory memory is our ability to remember certain aspects of information for less than a second after the stimulus has gone. Our sensory receptors have the ability to hold an enormous amount of information but everything held by these receptors only lasts for a fraction of a second. Sensory memory is divided into ~Echoic memory refers to stimuli of an audio nature. An example of this is the ability to repeat words or numbers a few seconds after someone else has said them ~and Iconic memory is much more brief and lasts for just one quarter of a second. This relates to visual memory whereby we can remember items that have just flashed on a screen for a very short period of time.

Short-term memory which is the ability to hold a small amount of information for a few seconds. It is estimated that we can hold short-term memories for up to 20 seconds.

Long-term memory. This form of memory can hold a seemingly unlimited amount of information for an unlimited length of time. Long-term memories could also be lifelong memories. Also at long-term memory we could forget information if it is not recalled at regular intervals. Loss of memory actually occurs because the brain’s neuron store diminishes but illnesses like Dementia and Alzheimer’s can contribute to these lapses in memory.

Another factor crucial to long-term memory capacity is sleep. Lack of sleep can lead to a disorganized memory store.

49. Explain basic laws of memorizing (G. Ebbinghaus, G. Miller) . The human mind works a lot like a computer: It collects, saves, modifies, and retrieves information. George A. Miller, one of the founders of cognitive psychology. In 1956 ,in the paper of “The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two” Miller proposed that short-term memory is subject to certain limits, including span and the quantity of information that can be stored at a given time. There are two main ways that are effective in processing information while it is in short-term memory. Rote or maintenance rehearsal is the first but less desirable of these methods. This type of rehearsal is intended only to keep information until it can be processed further. It consists mainly of some sort of repetition of the new information, and if it is not processed further will be lost.

Hermann Ebbinghaus research focused on sensation and perception (which includes a famous optical illusion) as well as memory, which is his most significant contribution to the field of psychology. The first of these trends is known as the spacing effect. When Ebbinghaus tried to memorize syllables, he found that he was better able to do this through distributed practice, meaning that he could retain more information when he studied it a little bit at a time every day rather than when he tried to memorize a large amount of information in one day. This can be applied to studying for tests as well. You will do better on an exam if you review the material little by little every day than if you wait until the night before the exam and spend five hours cramming.

Another trend with memorization identified by Ebbinghaus is the serial position effect. This effect can work in one of two ways. When a list of syllables is first presented, it is more likely that the last few syllables will be remembered the best immediately after first exposure.

50. Define psychological nature of thought and process of thinking. We think in one of three possible modes: "pathological", "logical", or "psychological". Psychological thinking can be inductive or deductive, logical thinking is inductive, and pathological thinking is only destructive.

Pathological thinking does not see itself. When it starts to see itself, it dissolves, like a witch in water. Pathological thinking is mixed with emotion, and it is the (unrecognized) emotion that directs it.

Logical thinking works without emotion. It works by comparison, yes or no, either/or. It seeks conclusion, decision between two opposing choices. It is impartial, non-subjective. It works like a computer, composed of bits, dissecting but never understanding.

Psychological thinking is intellect in harmony with emotion. It is aware of itself. When that awareness vanishes, so does the cooperation of thought and feeling. Thought then becomes logical, pathological, or disappears entirely.

Pathological thought does not see itself. It is not seen when someone points it out to us because often that person has ulterior motives in pointing it out, for example they are mad at us, and what we see instead of our pathological thought is their pathological thought and we wonder that they cannot see it.

It is possible, if working with a group of people who know about pathological thought, to be shown moments when we are in it. And to show them when they are in it. This requires a certain finesse by the person showing us, requires a common group aim that overrides personal discomfort. The emotions mixed in pathological thought are the goal of that thought. The purpose of pathological thought is to justify and express those emotions. The purpose is not to think, but to use thought as a tool for ends that it is not designed for.

Logical thought can see only itself. Logic is like finding one's way through a maze, a maze whose end is the same regardless of the hopes and fears of the person negotiating it. A particular turn is objectively right or wrong, that is, it leads more quickly to progress toward the end or it doesn't. And the end is pre-determined, fixed, and immutable. The end is also unknown, or there would be no point in pursuing the thought to find it, unless one were interested in the steps, say, to design a computer program. What logical thought cannot do is pursue an initial intent other than the intention to follow its course to wherever it leads. Computers follow logical thought, and may be capable of piecing together pieces of logical thought to create new pathways, but that is as close as they can come to thought, having no attention. They are incapable of intending it, just as they are incapable of pathological or psychological thought.

Logical thought lacks scale, lacks hierarchical ordering by quality. It can only compare like things quantitatively and then apply pre-established rules to produce a result or decision. It is a powerful tool in its sphere, but its sphere is limited and completely uncreative.

Psychological thought must see itself, and can also see logical and pathological thought.

51. Distinguish basic forms and operations of thought and thinking process. The primary thinking processes, as codified by Goldratt and others: Current reality tree (CRT) — evaluates the network of cause-effect relations between the undesirable effects and helps to pinpoint the root cause(s) of most of the undesirable effects. Evaporating Cloud (conflict resolution diagram or CRD) - solves conflicts that usually perpetuate the causes for an undesirable situation.

Core Conflict Cloud - A combination of conflict clouds based several UDE's. Looking for deeper conflicts that create the undesirable effects.

Future Reality Tree - Once some actions (injections) are chosen (not necessarily detailed) to solve the root causes uncovered in the CRT and to resolve the conflict in the CRD the FRT shows the future states of the system and helps to identify possible negative outcomes of the changes.

Negative Branch Reservations (NBR) - Identify potential negative ramifications of any action. The goal of the NBR is to understand the causal path between the action and negative ramifications so that the negative effect can be "trimmed."

Positive Reinforcement Loop (PRL) - Desired effect (DE) presented in FRT amplifies intermediate objective (IO) that is earlier in the tree.

Prerequisite Tree (PRT) - states that all of the intermediate objectives necessary to carry out an action chosen and the obstacles that will be overcome in the process.

Transition Tree (TT) - describes in great detail the action that will lead to the fulfillment of a plan to implement changes (outlined on a PRT or not).

Strategy & Tactics (S&T) - the overall project plan and metrics that will lead to a successful implementation and the ongoing loop through POOGI. Goldratt adapted three operating level performance measures—throughput, inventory and operating expense—and adopted three strategic performance measures—net income, return on investment, and cash flow—to maintain the change.

Thought (also called thinking) – the mental process in which beings form psychological associations and models of the world. Thought, the act of thinking, produces thoughts. A thought may be an idea, an image, a sound or even an emotional feeling that arises from the brain.

52. Differentiate various reasons of classifying types of thinking . We think in one of three possible modes: "pathological", "logical", or "psychological". Psychological thinking can be inductive or deductive, logical thinking is inductive, and pathological thinking is only destructive.

Pathological thinking does not see itself. When it starts to see itself, it dissolves, like a witch in water. Pathological thinking is mixed with emotion, and it is the (unrecognized) emotion that directs it.

Logical thinking works without emotion. It works by comparison, yes or no, either/or. It seeks conclusion, decision between two opposing choices. It is impartial, non-subjective. It works like a computer, composed of bits, dissecting but never understanding.

Psychological thinking is intellect in harmony with emotion. It is aware of itself. When that awareness vanishes, so does the cooperation of thought and feeling. Thinking involves manipulating and transforming information in memory.

Critical thinking is thinking reflectively and productively, and evaluating the evidence.

Creative thinking is the ability to think about something in novel and unusual ways and come up with unique solutions to problems.

Convergent Thinking Produces one correct answer.

Divergent Thinking. Produces many answers to the same question.

Analytical thinking are critical in the work place because they help you to gather information, articulate, visualize and solve complex problems. Even with comprehensive training, there will be many times where you will be put on the spot to think analytically and the right or wrong answer could make a difference with regard to your upward mobility within the company. 

Concrete thinking is the first form of thinking children master. Concrete thinking can severely inhibit a person’s ability to learn, empathize, and relate to other people and have the ability to think about things that are not present–but still struggle with abstract thoughts.

53. Reveal significance of imagination in everyday practice and its psychological mechanisms. Imagination is constantly on the verge of conscious and unconscious, one associative context and the other, destructive and constructive. Therefore, it always creates a wide scope for human self as artist. Of course, only the imagination of the individual as a mental process is not enough to ensure that there was full creative human activity; here imagination comes into fruitful alliance with other creative -intuyitsiyeyu mental processes and thinking. Intuitive insight create preconditions bisotsiatyvnyh relations in the imagination, and recent transactions give exact direction of creative thinking, indirect signs (words, language).

Imagination belongs to the higher cognitive processes. It is a necessary aspect of any human activity.

Imagination generate needs that arise in human life, especially the need to change certain things of the world.

Imagination - the reproduction in the human psyche objects and phenomena, which she perceived ever before, and the creation of new images of objects and phenomena, which she had never before perceived.

Features imagination are:

• modeling activities and the final result of the means necessary for its implementation; • creating a program behavior when problematic situation uncertain; • creation of images that are not programmed activities, and substitute it;

• creating images of objects based on charts, graphs, maps, photographs territory, descriptions, etc; • the creation of innovative objects and phenomena and so on.