- •С.В. Иванова
- •Ббк 81.2 Англ
- •Foreword
- •Preface
- •Preface to the second edition
- •Major trends in Theoretical Grammar of the English language
- •Classical English grammar
- •Transformational grammar
- •Functional Communicative Approach
- •Cognitive Grammar and Cognitive Linguistics
- •Supplementary literature:
- •2. Major grammatical notions
- •Language as a system
- •Chart 1. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations
- •Chart 2. Paradigmatic patterns of a clause by m.A.K. Halliday
- •Interrogative→ “wh”
- •Indicative→ declarative→
- •Imperative → jussive38 →
- •Inclusive
- •Grammatical meaning, grammatical form and grammatical category
- •E.G. Work –worked
- •The notion of opposition in Theoretical Grammar
- •Synthetic and analytic forms
- •Morphology and Syntax as two main parts of grammar
- •Chart 3. The scope of morphology
- •Inflection word-formation
- •3. The notion of a morpheme
- •The idea and the definition of the morpheme
- •Types of morphemes
- •Problems connected with the notion of a morpheme
- •Characteristic features of inflectional morphology and types of word-form derivation
- •4. The parts of speech system
- •In foreign linguistics
- •Introduction to the problem
- •Classification of parts of speech suggested by Henry Sweet
- •3. O. Jespersen’s classification of parts of speech
- •4. Principles of the classification of words suggested by Charles Fries
- •Woggles ugged diggles
- •Uggs woggled digs
- •5. Classifications of parts of speech developed within structuralist linguistics
- •6. R. Quirk’s approach to the problem in his
- •Verb Preposition
- •Interjection
- •Modern grammars of contemporary English
- •5. The parts of speech system
- •In russian linguistics
- •The main criteria for the classification of parts of speech in Russian Linguistics
- •The concept of notional and formal words
- •6. The article
- •1. The status of the article in English
- •2. The number of articles in English
- •3. The categorial meaning and the functions of the article
- •7. Noun and its grammatical categories
- •Introduction. The categories of gender and number
- •The category of case
- •The syntactic function of the noun
- •8. The verb. General characteristics
- •The verb. General overview
- •2. The categories of person and number
- •3. The category of tense
- •9. The category of aspect
- •In modern english
- •The definition of aspect as a verbal category
- •Different approaches to the interpretation of aspect
- •The connection of the aspect interpretation with other lexicological issues: terminative and durative verbs
- •The correlation of the English aspect forms and Russian aspect forms
- •10. The category of retrospective coordination
- •The problem of the Perfect forms in the system of the English language
- •2. Different approaches to the interpretation of perfect forms
- •Interpretation of perfect forms as an independent grammatical category
- •11. The category of mood in modern english
- •1. The category of mood and its semantic content
- •Debatable issues connected with the interpretation of the category of mood
- •12. The category of voice
- •In modern english
- •The nature of the grammatical category of voice
- •2. Debatable problems within the category of voice
- •He told me a story.
- •3. The notion of transitivity
- •13. Syntax
- •Syntax as a branch of grammar
- •Units of syntactic description
- •The theory of phrase
- •Types of syntactic relations (linkage)
- •14. The sentence
- •The sentence: the problem of its definition
- •2. The sentence. Its major categories
- •3. Typology of the sentence
- •15. Sentence as an object of syntactic studies
- •Major features of the sentence as a syntactic unit
- •Syntactic structure of the sentence as an object of linguistic studies
- •Immediate constituents of the sentence: ic analysis
- •Adjoinment - the use of specifying words, most often particles: He did it – Only he did it.
- •The utterance. Informative structure of the utterance
- •Basic notions of pragmatic linguistics
- •Speech act theory. Direct and indirect speech acts. Types of speech acts
- •Discourse analysis as the study of language in use
- •Implicatures of discourse
- •Implicatures and indirectness
- •It is only due to making an assumption about the relevance of b’s response that we can understand it as an answer to a’s question.
- •A List of Selected Bibliography
- •List of reference and practice books
- •Terminological dictionaries
- •Seminars in theoretical grammar
- •Contents
3. O. Jespersen’s classification of parts of speech
Another significant classification of the parts of speech is that given by Otto Jespersen. Of all the authors of scientific grammars of the classical type Otto Jespersen is the most original. His morphological system differs from the traditional as he lists only five parts of speech – substantives, adjectives, verbs, pronouns (the latter include pronominal adverbs and articles) and “particles” in which he groups adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections. Like Henry Sweet he proposes three principles of classification, according to which everything should be kept in mind – meaning, form and function. Nevertheless in practice only one of these features is taken into account, and that is primarily form and in a few cases, the origin of a given form. O. Jespersen described hic classification of the parts of speech in his famous book “The Philosophy of Grammar” which was published in 1924.
What is curious about O. Jespersen’s classification is the fact that he gives the traditional list of parts of speech “for the dictionary” as he puts it. But he produces the theory of “The three ranks” based on mutual relations of words in a sentence in order to differentiate between the words in speech. Thus, he analyses the groups extremely hot weather or a furiously barking dog and singles out primary words (weather, dog), secondary words (hot, barking) and tertiary words (extremely, furiously). Such an interpretation rests on O. Jespersen’s general outlook that all the categorial, morphological properties of English parts of speech (verb and noun, first of all) go under the general title of syntax. Though quite innovative and contributing to the development of linguistics, this theory did not cover the relations of all the main word-classes, leaving out the verb. So, O. Jespersen’s grammar rested neither on formal, nor on meaningful criteria in parts-of-speech analysis.
In spite of some drawbacks of his theory it can be stated that among the authors of the 20th century scientific grammars of the older school O. Jespersen was the only one who, like Henry Sweet, elaborated such general concepts of grammatical theory as the correspondence of grammatical and logical categories and the definition and delimitation of morphology and syntax. His criticism of the traditional definitions of the sentence and the parts of speech also deserves attention. His efforts to describe the peculiarities of modern English should be also noted.
4. Principles of the classification of words suggested by Charles Fries
Quite a different approach to the problem of parts of speech can be illustrated by the theoretical conception suggested by Charles Fries, an American linguist. Charles Fries represents structural (descriptivist) grammar. Structural grammarians began treating the problems of the structure of English criticizing the traditional, or the so-called conventional grammar. Ch. Fries expressed his ideas on the nature of the language in his book “The Structure of English, An Introduction to the Construction of English Sentences” which was published in 1952. Ch. Fries claims the necessity of a new approach to the process of language study implying the application of some of the newly developed techniques, i.e. distributional analysis and substitution. Distribution is the set of contexts within sentences in which a unit or class of units can appear (e.g. the distribution of hair in written English is the set of contexts I combed my ----. Give me the --- spray, My --- is too long, etc., in any of which the blank (---) can be filled by it). Substitution is understood as the replacement, in the process of analyzing a language, of one unit or sequence of units by another. This enabled Charles Fries to avoid the traditional terminology, dispense with the usual eight parts of speech and establish a completely new classification based on the ability of words to combine with other words of different type.
Charles Fries begins his analysis with the criticism of the traditional approach to the division of words into parts of speech. He believes that traditional definitions of parts of speech are mainly based on intuition, which has little if nothing in common with scholarly principles. He holds that a native speaker refers words to different parts of speech according to the signals of structural meaning. Words are ascribed this or that status according to the position they take in a sentence. “A part of speech in English […] is a functioning pattern”46. He arrives at the conclusion that the signals of structural meaning in English consist of patterns of arrangement of classes of words. Due to this fact one does not need to know the lexical meanings of the following words to understand which of them are “thing” or “action” words: