Unit III. Miltilingualism
Societal multilingualism in modern world
I. Define and comment on the following terms used in the texts. Consult available sources:
1. bilingualism
2. creole
3. pidgin
2. dialect
3. monolingualism
4. multilingualism
5. mother tongue/native language
6. national language
7. official language
8. second language
9. majority language
10. minority language
11. linguistic minority
12. standard language – non standard dialect
13. linguistic variety
14. lingua franca
II. Read the following expressions to make sure that you can use them correctly. Memorize them:
Part a
to acquire proficiency in sth (e.g.: a language)
to adopt an approach to sth (e.g.: a language, issue)
to be at (a linguistic/political) disadvantage
to become extinct
to be spoken natively
to be taught through the medium of sth (e.g.: a language)
to cater for smb/sth
to eliminate sth (e.g.: a language; non-standard speech)
to impair educational process
to obliterate sth (e.g.: a language; one’s culture)
to tend to be bilingual/multilingual
Part b
bidialectalism approach
disfavoured minorities
genuinely monolingual countries
group consciousness
a hybrid language
illogical ethnic attitudes
language loyalty
a language spoken indigenously
linguistic diversity
linguistic minority
linguistically sophisticated policy
a monoglot area
multilingual society
separatist movement
sizeable groups of speakers
Text 1. linguistic diversity
Linguistic diversity is a major guarantee for cultural diversity. Like multilingualism, it contributes to sustainable development, the strengthening of dialogue, social cohesion and peace.
Languages are a fundamental component of culture and serve as tools and means of communication. But they are also an essential factor for establishing the identity of individuals and groups. Through language, people build, understand and express their emotions, intentions, values, notions and practices.
As tools in the service of a number of social practices, languages constitute a highly interdisciplinary domain and a precondition for the enjoyment of fundamental human rights. They are also strategically important to meet the great challenges facing humanity. Yet over 50 per cent of the world’s 6,000 languages are endangered. Some 96 per cent of them are spoken by 4 per cent of the world's population, and less than 25 per cent are used in cyberspace. Moreover, multilingualism promotes the harmonious coexistence of local, national and international languages and thus is a factor of mutual respect and intercultural dialogue.
Text 2. The Language Steamrollers s. Griffiths
Over the last few centuries, thousands of native languages have been destroyed; “steamrollered” out of existence by the handful of language groups that dominate the world today. Just how did this happen? Why is it that some cultures have survived while others have been forced into extinction?
In Language Steamrollers, Sarah Griffiths traces the cultural origins of the world’s dominant languages. Where did these so-called steamrollers come from? How did they come to conquer the world? And how many of today’s languages will survive? As the spread of Internet technology brings us together into one global village, we will be forced to speak in one global tongue? Or should we try to preserve our multilingual society?
Throughout history, many native languages were wiped out of existence by the so-called “steam rollers” – languages that came to power with the spread of trade, conquest or political pressure. The demise of languages throughout the worlds is still an enormous threat as Linguist David Crystal explains, “There are some 6000 languages in the world at the moment and it’s been estimated that half of these languages will die out during the next 100 years. If you work it out, it means that one language is dying somewhere in the world every two weeks.”
Even today, languages are dying out in remote regions of the world, because of the development of land by large multinational companies. Crystal continues, “We’ve seen it in South East Asia such as Papua New Guinea and Indonesia. In Brazil, the exploitation of Amazon rainforest has led to the destruction of local communities and their languages.”
Three thousand of the languages spoken in the world today are in the process of dying out because they are not being learned as a first language by the next generation of speakers. But according to Jean Aitchison, Professor of Language and Communication at Oxford University, the situation could be far worse.
“Of 6000 languages, it’s claimed only that 10 %, that is about 600, will be in the safe category in 100 years time. This is reached by calculating how many languages are moribund, that is in the process of dying, which is half of these. A further 2400 will come near extinction because it is assumed that any language with fewer than 100,000 speakers is unsafe.”
With so many languages under threat, it is difficult to know which ones will survive, but it is likely to be the language steamrollers, the languages of power. Jared Diamond, Professor of Physiology at UCLA, explains: “The languages, which will survive, are big national languages such as English, French, Spanish, Chinese, Portuguese, and Arabic. The languages that will die out will be most of the languages of New Guinea, native Australia, most native American languages, most languages of South Africa south of the Equator and many of the languages of the Indian subcontinent other than major languages.”
Yiddish is just one of thousands of languages which are now under threat. But should we be worried about losing languages?
According to Crystal, preserving rare languages is just as important as preserving animals and plants.
“Here we’ve got linguistic diversity. Six thousand languages or so are preserving 6,000ways of thinking, distinct ways of seeing the world, distinct histories of knowledge, cultural traditions all the things that make you who you are and who your community is. All of this is encapsulated in your language and as soon as a language dies, if it has never been written down, it is as if it never existed. It has gone from the face of the earth. Consequently the loss to human kind, the fact that a whole area of knowledge has just disappeared is inconceivable but is happening every two weeks at the moment.”
Aitchison, like Crystal, believes that it would be a great loss to all of us if languages die out.
“The world would be diminished if everybody stopped talking all these languages. People get so upset about all these plants and trees dying but no one worries about the languages going and this seems to me to be worse.”
The loss of a language means not just the loss of one people’s culture and identity. It affects the whole of our human cultural heritage. So what can be done to preserve these endangered languages?
There is a slowly growing movement to record or document languages that have not been written down, before they disappear, and also to try to encourage communities to take a pride in their heritage and continue to speak their language. As Crystal explains, “Welsh is a good example of a language that has been preserved: Welsh is one of those languages which in the 1950s was deteriorating very, very rapidly and then there was a major movement in the 1960s and ‘70s leading to a new Welsh television channel and all sorts of other developments. As a result the Welsh language is beginning to rise in numbers.”
Many communities, such as the Welsh speakers in the UK, continue to feel pressurised to speak the language of power (in this case English) to enable them to work. But by being bilingual, they are able to speak English as well as and not instead of their own language. This is one way that many languages could be saved.
Successful language preservation projects have also been achieved in areas of Mexico and Australia. Crystal explains, “You’ll find that although most of the aboriginal languages are unsavable there have been some superb examples of a local language being brought back from the brink. Communities are proud of their language and are now developing language materials for schools in order to give the language a future.”
However this is an expensive task. Estimates show it can cost up to $300 000 a year for just one language, and many governments may not be willing to pay this. In fact, as Linguist Peter Ladefoged explains, it may be in the government’s interest to limit the number of languages spoken in their country.
“Producing textbooks for school children in vast numbers is difficult. Producing radio broadcasts in a vast number of languages is even more difficult and when you get to movies and television it is just too expensive to have a very large number of languages supported.”
So where could the money be found? Well according to Rhodes, from governments, who already spend far more on other scientific projects: “Whilst I have nothing against the Mars Lander, the $100 million spent on the Lander if channelled into linguistic enterprise, could probably provide better documentation for 200 languages.”
David Crystal has another suggestion:
"We are not talking about vast sums of money here, compared to profits of international organisations. Wouldn’t it be wonderful if some of those international organisations that have been responsible for exploiting the minority cultures of the world, were to actually put some money back into it.”