Vocabulary:

chip – стружка, content – склад, topermit –дозволяти, tungsten – вольфрам, tip – наконечник, truing – правка, наводка, заточка, die – матриця, штамп, coarse – грубий, to pierce – проколювати, to punch – пробивати отвір, hardened – загартований, nut – гайка

Dies are tools used for the shaping of solid materials, especially those employed in the pressworking of cold metals.

In press work, dies are used in pairs. The smaller die, or punch, fits inside the larger die, called the matrix or, simply, the die. The metal to be formed, usually a sheet, is placed over the matrix on the press. The punch is mounted on the press and moves down by hydraulic or mechanical force.

A number of different forms of dies are employed for different operations. The simplest are piercing dies (пробивний штамп), used for punching holes. Bending and folding dies (загибний) are designed to make single or compound bends. A combination die is designed to perform more than one of the above operations in one stroke of the press. A progressive die (штамп послідовної дії) permits successive forming operations with the same die.

In coining, metal is forced to flow into two matching dies, each of which bears an engraved design (гравійований малюнок).

Wiredrawing Dies

In the manufacture of wire, a drawplate (волочильна дошка) is usually employed. This tool is a metal plate containing a number of holes, successively less in diameter and known as wire dies. A piece of metal is pulled through the largest die to make a coarse wire. This wire is then drawn through the smaller hole, and then the next, until the wire is reduced to the desired measurement. Wiredrawing dies are made from extremely hard materials, such as tungsten carbide or diamonds.

Thread-Cutting Dies

For cutting threads on bolts or on the outside of pipes, a thread-cutting die (різьбонарізнаплашка) is used. It is usually made of hardened steel in the form of a round plate with a hole in the centre. The hole has a thread. To cut an outside thread, the die is lubricated with oil and simply screwed onto an unthreaded bolt or piece of pipe, the same way a nut is screwed onto a bolt. The corresponding tool for cutting an inside thread, such as that inside a nut, is called a tap (мітчик).

Ex. 17. Find English equivalents in the text:

1. видаляти металеву стружку

2. гострий ріжучий край

3. вміст вуглецю

4. ріжуча здатність

5. сталь для швидкісного різання

6. правка шліфувальних кругів

7. гідравлічний або механічний тиск

8. різні форми штампів

Ex. 18.Translate the following sentences:

1. Усі різці і фрези повинні мати гостру ріжучу кромку.

2. Під час різання ріжучий інструмент і деталь мають високу температуру і повинні охолоджуватися.

3. Вуглецеві сталі часто використовуються для виготовлення різців тому, що вони недорогі.

4. Швидкорізальної сталі містять вольфрам, хром і ванадій.

5. Алмази використовуються для різання абразивних матеріалів і чистової обробки поверхні твердих матеріалів.

6. Для різних операцій використовують різні штампи.

7. Волочильні дошки для дроту робляться з дуже твердих матеріалів,

8. Різьбонарізні плашки і мітчики використовуються для нарізкирізьблення зовні і всередині.

Ex. 19. Define the type of conditional and translate it:

1. If we look around, we can see that electricity is serving us in one way or another. 2. If I were free, I should help you with pleasure. 3. If we had tested this material, we should have used it in our work. 4. If ordinary gases are greatly compressed, they become liquids. 5. If supercomputers had not been used for thermodynamic calculations, designers would have spent all their lives on computations. 6. If you think that a computer never makes mistakes, you are wrong. 7. If extreme temperatures generated by atmospheric friction were not so high, a hypersonic craft would not require complicated cooling measures. 8. If we had been told about the lecture on reliability in spacecraft production, we should have come by all means. 9. Superconductivity can be obtained in some materials if the temperature is very low and close to absolute zero.

Ex. 20. Open the brackets correctly:

1. If you (to know) English well, you will be able to read books in the original. 2. If I get this book, I (to be) very happy. 3. You (to become) much stronger if you did your morning exercises regularly. 4. If she went to work in France, she (to learn) French very quickly. 5. If he (to see) her, he would have spoken to her. 6. I (to help) them if I had been at home. 7. You (to write) the testwork well if you have learnt grammar. 8. If she (to ask) me yesterday, I should have told her about it. 9. If we had not been present at the lecture, we (not to understand) the new approach to the solution of the problem.

Ex.21. Complete the sentences:

1. I would work much better if... . 2. Life would be much sim­pler if... . 3. Use every opportunity to practice English if.... 4. I would have started to study English earlier, if... . 5. I would have had more opportunities, if... .

Ex. 22. Change according to the model:

If I were free, I should help you. Were I free, I should help you.

If he had known about the lecture, he would have come. Had he known about the lecture, he would have come.

1. If it were possible, we should begin this work at once. 2. If he had had all the necessary books, he would have made his report in time. 3. If the books had been available in our library, we could have done this work much earlier. 4. If there were no computers, space flights would be impossible. 5. If drivers were more attentive while driving, there would be less accidents on the road.

Ex. 23. Translate correctly:

1. Had he used new materials, the device would have been more reliable. 2. Were electric motors used, cars would not pollute the air, would be practically noiseless and very easy to control. 3. Had they applied the new method, the result would have been much better. 4. Were the design of cars improved, the fuel consumption would be greatly reduced. 5. Had a less explosive gas been used in dirigibles at the beginning of the century, they would have been in operation since that time. 6. Were it possible to learn how birds find their way, people would use the principle to develop a navigation system for aviation.

Unit 13

Text A. Man-Made Elements Text B. Welding Grammar: The Infinitive and its functions

Text A

MAN-MADE ELEMENTS

enough – достатньо alter –переробити, змінити artificially – штучно

add – додати subtract – відняти inventor – винахідник

Man at last understood the elements well enough to make his own.

First, there were some elements still missing from the Periodic Table. The fact was they were practically missing from nature, too.

Scientists had to make these elements themselves. To make such elements meant first of all to carry on great experimental work. Many scientists worked hard at this problem. In 1919, Ernest Rutherford was the first to change nitrogen to oxygen by bombarding nitrogen atoms with alpha-particles.

To alter an element artificially is to add or subtract particles in its nucleus. The first completely new man-made isotope was created by Rutherford's method, its creators being Irene Curie and her husband Frederic Joliot. To do that they had to bombard aluminium with alpha-particles.This attack transformed some of the aluminium atoms in to a highly radioactive substance. This substance was a new kind of phosphorus, its atomic weight being 30, instead of natural phosphorus 31.

It was no wonder that phosphorus 30 did not occur in nature, its half-life being only two and a half minutes. Thus, the Joliot-Curies were the first to produce "artificial radioactivity".

The era of artificial transmutation began with the building of the first "atom-smasher", i.e. the cyclotron. By means of cyclotron and energetic particle-accelerators developed later it became possible to open up the nucleus of any atom. It became possible to add particles to it, and even to create new ones.

The first element produced in this way was the missing number 43, it being named "technetium" meaning "artificial". The aim of the scientists was to discover other elements.

In 1939, a new element was found. It behaved like an alkali-metal, therefore it was to be 87 the missing number of the alkali-metal family. It was called "francium". It was detected in nature. Later that element was produced artificially by an accelerator, and only then did chemists obtain enoughof it. For that reason francium is to be considered as a man-made element.

Later scientists discovered traces of an element in neutron-bombarded uranium. They called it "neptunium". Radioactive neptunium gave rise to another element – number 94.

In 1955, chemists could produce a few atoms of element 101, which was named "mendelevium" in honour of D.I. Mendeleyev. The isolation of element number 102 occurred in 1963, it being named "nobelium", as part of the work was done at the Nobel Institute in Stockholm. The next element to be produced was 103. It was named "lawrencium" for E. Lawrence, the inventor of the cyclotron. Then the task was to discover the next element. It was 104. It was named "kurchatovium" in honour of the great scientist I. V. Kurchatov, who worked in the field of nuclear physics. He conducted a great deal of research in the field of nuclear physics. The scientists of the whole world continue their research in the field of artificial elements.

Ex. 1. Answer the following questions:

1. Why did it become possible to make elements artificially? 2. What problem did many scientists work at? 3. Whatdoes it mean to alter an element artificially? 4. What element was produced by Irene Curie and Frederic Joliot? 5. How did they get this element? 6. What is cyclotron usedfor? 7. What element was produced by means of cyclotron? 8. What element was found in 1955? 9. Why was element number 104 named "kurchatovium"? 10. How many elementsin the Periodic Table are known now?

Ex. 2. Form nouns by using the suffixes "-er", "-or", translate the nouns:

To accelerate; to create; to invent; to produce; to manufacture.

Ex. 3. Find the English equivalents of the following wordsand word combinations in the text:

штучні елементи; на честь; період напіврозпаду;стало можливим; викликати; відкритий; він поводився подібнолужному металу.

Ex. 4. Form the adverbs from the following adjectives and translate them:

Practical, partial, high, hard, near, simple, ready, considerable.

Ex. 5. Open the brackets translating the words into English:

1. (За допомогою) of a new cyclotron it became possibleto open up the nucleus of any atom. 2. The new device wascreated (замість) an old one. 3. The element produced (таким чином) was named ''technetium". 4. The element behaved (подібно) an alkali-metal. 5. Radioactive neptunium (привів) to another element – number 94. 6. The isolation of element number 102 (мало місце) in 1963. 7. (He дивно) that many new discoveries have taken place recently.8. (Нарешті) they succeeded in creating a new type of machine. 9. This element was named (на честь) of this famousscientist. 10. It was (особливо) difficult to distinguish this substance. 11. It was (майже) impossible to create a new type of machine at our plant.

Ex. 6. Explain the difference between:

hard – hardly near – nearly

ready – readily high – highly late –lately

Ex. 7. Find the sentences where the word "hard" is translated as

"наполегливо":

1. The research-workers of our Institute had to carry onhard work to find out all the missing properties of this substance. 2. He has to work hard this term as he missed manylectures. 3. It was hardly possible to distinguish the properties of this substance at a glance, therefore a powerfulmicroscope had to be used. 4. They worked hard and their hard work resulted in new interesting discoveries. 5. If youstudied hard, you would hardly fail at the examination. 6. She will hardly come as she is very busy.7.The molecules of even the hardest steels can be separated by enormous distances compared to the size of the molecules.

Ex.8. Remember the meanings of the following words, translate the sentences:

practically – практично, майже

particularly – особливо

partially – частково

1.Artificial graphite surpasses practically natural graphite in purity and particularly in homogeneity. 2. Acetylene is a very important starting material particularly for preparation of a number of synthetic products. 3. Observations were made partially in order to determine if there was any relation between these two elements. 4. Polystyrene is a thermoplastic, which can be used in laboratories particularly for windows. 5. Practically there is no great difference between these two substances, the former one being more soluble in water. 6. I know him to be particularly interested in this problem. 7. No phase separation was shown practically on cooling crucible just below the temperature of the liquid. 8. It is very difficult to define the shape of these glasses particularly since it appears impossible to quench these glasses to homogeneous materials.

The Infinitive

	Active	Passive
Indefinite	to ask	to be asked
Continuous	to be asking
Perfect	to have asked	to have been asked
Perfect Continuous	to have been asking

Active Infinitive	Passive Infinitive
She doesn't want to ask you. My friend was glad tohave given you this book. He had to translate this article without a dictionary.	She doesn't want to be asked. My friend was glad to have been given this book. The article had to be translated without a dictionary.

Ex. 9. Give the Passive forms of the following Infinitives:

To accelerate, to have made, to attack, to use, to havedetermined, to take, to suppose.

Study and remember the following chart, mind the functions of the Infinitive:

To repeat the words is very useful. It is important to solve this question. The main task is to examine this substance.	Subject
He has to (must, may...) solve this problem. The substance began to melt.	Predicative
He tried to finish his work in time. He is sorry to have been late.	Оbject
The material to be used was examined. He was the first to examine this material. Here is the student to examine thismaterial	Attribute
He came to the Institute to speak to the teacher before the lectures.	Adverbial Modifier of Purpose
To understand this phenomenon wellone must know the structure of thematerial. He knew me too well not to believe me	Adverbial Modifier of Result

Ex. 10. Paraphrase the following sentences according to the given models:

Model I: The problem, which is to be solved by us is very interesting.

The problem to be solved by us is very interesting.

1. Many ores, which are to be found in our region will be used in industry. 2. The report, which will be made by thisscientist deals with very important problems in the fieldof atoms. 3. The solution, which is to be filtered was pouredinto a flask. 4. The article which is to be translated is published in our journal. 5. The experiment, which will be carried out, will help us in our investigation.

M оd e 1 II: He was the first who passed all his exams.

He was the first to pass all his exams.

1. Dalton was the first who deduced scientifically theatomic theory from experimental data. 2. She was the last who learned the news. 3. Alpha radiation was the first that was studied in detail at that time. 4. He was the third who translated the article so well. 5. This student was the last who left the laboratory.

Ex. 11. Translate the sentences. Pay attention to the functions of the Infinitives:

1. Chemical reactions that change the concentration of hydrogen ions to become the same as in pure water are called neutralization reactions. 2. Ammonium ions interact withwater to form hydronium ions in equilibrium with molecular ammonia. 3. No special regulation of concentration is required to effect a separation between the chlorides of theseions.4.The purpose of these experiments was to observe properties of the element involved. 5. The aim of these research-workers is to find out the required element. 6. As aresult of many experiments involving combining weights, chemists have been able to determine the relative weightsof different elements. 7. The substance to be extracted should be more soluble in the extracting solvent than in the initial solution. 8. Some of the metals are not active enough to react with water at ordinary temperature. 9. To establish the molecular weight of oxygen means to find the number of atoms in the oxygen molecule. 10. The apparatus to be used in our work was constructed in our laboratory. 11. Where is the mixture to be heated? 12. E. Rutherford was the firstto change nitrogen to oxygen by bombarding nitrogen atoms with alpha particles. 13. To determine the relative weights of different elements we were to use the relative system of atomic weights. 14. A slight addition of pressure at this temperature should cause liquefaction to take place, but beyond this temperature no amount of pressure would enable the gravitational attraction to exceed the energy of motion.15. In order to liquefy a gas at a temperature below its critical temperature, it is practically necessary only to compress the gas.

Text B

WELDING