- •Translation
- •1. The translation of proper names
- •1.1. People’s names
- •1.2. Geographical names
- •1.3. The names of companies, newspapers, educational institutions, and public bodies
- •2. The translation of internationalisms and culturally-biased lexis
- •2.1. Internationalisms and their types
- •2.2. The translation of international words
- •2.3. Pseudo-internationalisms and their translation.
- •2.4. Culturally biased lexis and ways of its translation
- •3. The translation of idioms, proverbs, and sayings
- •3.1. Phraseological units and their semantic classification
- •3.2. Rules of translating idioms, proverbs, and sayings
- •2. Translation of idioms by choosing near equivalents
- •3. Translation by choosing genuine idiomatic analogies
- •4. Translating idioms by choosing approximate analogies
- •5. Descriptive translating of idiomatic and set expressions
- •4. The rendering of contextual meanings of the indefinite and definite articles
- •4.1. The translation of the indefinite article
- •4.2. The translation of the definite article
- •5. The translation of nominal phrases
- •6. The translation of verbals and verbal complexes
- •7. Translation transformations
- •7.1. Ways of translating non-equivalent words
- •7.2. Lexical transformations
- •7.3. Grammatical transformations
- •7.4. Stylistic transformations
7. Translation transformations
In case of dealing with non-equivalent lexis, it may not be possible to use a corresponding worf from the target language in the process of translation. In such cases, translators use a number of general ways of translating non-equivalent lexis.
7.1. Ways of translating non-equivalent words
Transcoding is a way of translation which is characterized by representing the sound or graphic form of a source language word via the alphabet of a target language, e.g. management - менеджмент; periscope – перископ). There are four types of transcoding: 1) transcribing (the sound form of the original word is represented by graphic means of a target language): peak - пік; resistor - резистор; 2) transliterating (the graphic form of words from a source language is represented with the help of letters from a target language): marketing - маркетинг; ping-pong – пінг-понг; 3) mixed transcoding (the use of transcribing with some elements of transliterating): overlock - оверлок; altimeter - альтиметр; 4) adaptive transcoding (the form of words from a source language is adapted to phonetic and grammatical structure of the target language): nipple - ніпель; platform - платформа.
Loan translation is used as a way of translation of new words (terms) by means of choosing the first equivalent meaning in a target language dictionary to explain the word from a source language: self-cooling - самоохолодження; toxic shock syndrome – токсичний шоковий синдром; Big Bang – Великий вибух; blue-blood – блакитної крові.
Contextual substitution is a lexical translational transformation when the translatory counterpart is a word/ a word combination which is not the first dictionary equivalent, but is chosen to suit the contextual meaning of the word and the norms of the target language: the strongest - найбільший; anything – все; to share characteristics – базуватися на тих самих ознаках. There are four means of creating contextual substitutions: meaning differentiation; concretization; generalization, and antonymic translation that will be discussed later.
Semantic development is a type of contextual substitution when the translated word has a meaning which results from logical development of the meaning of the initial word: evidence comes from... – докази можна отримати; the theory became available – теорію було опрацьовано.
Descriptive translation is a way of translation of new lexical elements of the source language used when a word/ a word combination/ a term is substituted for a phrase with a more complicated structure and more constitutive parts: maisonette – квартира (помешкання) на двох поверхах; wail – автомобіль з високими динамічними якостями.
Antonymic translation is a way of contextual substitution when the form of a word or a word combination of the initial language is substituted by the opposite one from the target language, but the meaning remains the same. Its variants are: negation (to continue – не зупинятися; small – невеликий); positivation (unabbrevaited - повний; unallowed – заборонений); usage of two negative semantic components (not impossible - можливий; not disaggregative – цільний).
One of the words most frequently translated by means of antonymic translation is “to fail”: to fail to detect – не бути спроможним виявити; to fail to profit – нічого не заробити.