2. The role of metrological support.

First - it is necessary to develop and adopt a new standard for metrological support as he "... will encourage business leaders to pay more attention to solving problems of metrological support and <...> will contribute to strengthening the metrological services." [3]. Proponents of this view believe that metrology needs an official document, which has the status of law, to "without understanding" business leaders belonged to metrological services with due reverence;- The second - just a standard for metrological provision repealed, and the concept is more philosophical, and "... it is necessary to make measurements in accordance with current State standards and as close as possible to the standards of ISO ...» [3]. Those. What wonder - working experience suggests (who has more, who less, and from whom, and not at all), and closer to the regulations, which, if anything, can be referenced;

- The third - once Kazakhstan enters the WTO, it is necessary to maximize the meet the standards of ISO, and is ISO 10012-2008 «Management of organizations. Measurement management systems. Requirements for measurement processes and measuring equipment. "[4]. Simply put - why make things difficult, "foreign uncle" smarter, they have already decided everything. This misunderstanding is perceived as an insignificant fact that the standard itself rather vague, and its translation, adopted in Kazakhstan, has even errors in the terminology of [5].

4 Metrology software (PO) - a discipline that studies the problems evaluation metric characteristics of software quality at the stages of development of specifications until the completion of testing and debugging software. The course examines the criteria, specifications and software quality metrics; special emphasis on correctness characteristics, reliability and complexity of programs. Formal study models and methods of evaluation of both static and dynamic characteristics of quality Software allowing various stages of development to identify shortcomings and defects software products. We consider support tools and

automation of measuring the characteristics of the software.

Basic concepts and terms of metrology software.

            Standards in the field of metrology software.

Metrology

Software - as a basis for improving the quality of software. Basic concepts and keywords: complexity software design, the complexity, computational complexity, performance, efficiency, quality, a metric measuring the monitor. Domestic guests and International standards in metrology and quality of software.

The concept of the quality of the software product (PP).

            Performance and quality characteristics of PP.

The results of software development: specification, design, code,

documentation, test suites. The indicators characterizing the quality of the PCB design.

Quality features proper PP correctness, reliability, complexity,

Efficiency, Ease of use, Maintainability, Mobility.

5 State system for ensuring uniformity of measurements (ICG) - governance actors, norms, tools and activities to ensure a given level of uniformity of measurements in the country. Activities to ensure traceability aims to protect the legitimate interests of citizens and the rule of law and the economy, as well as to promote economic and social development of the country

by protecting against negative consequences of doubtful measurement results in all spheres of society.

Ensuring uniformity of measurements carried out on several levels:

- State;

- The level of federal bodies of executive power;

- The level of the legal entity.

The main purpose of the State system for ensuring the uniformity of measurements (ICG) is to create a national legal, regulatory, organizational, technical and economic conditions to meet the challenges of ensuring the uniformity of measurements.

The main objectives of the ICG are:

- Development of optimal management of principles to ensure traceability;

- Organizing and conducting fundamental research to create a better and more precise methods and means of reproduction of units and the transfer of their size;

- Establishment of a system of measurement units and measurement scales, admitted for application;

- The establishment of basic concepts in metrology, harmonization of terms and definitions;

- The establishment of an economically rational system of state standards, their development, approval, implementation and improvement;

- The establishment of systems of transfer of units from the values ​​of the state standards of measuring instruments used in the country;

- The creation and improvement of secondary and working standards, calibration of complete installations and laboratories;

- Establishing common requirements for the metrological standards, measuring instruments, measurement procedures, methods of verification (calibration) of measuring instruments and all other requirements, compliance with which is a prerequisite for ensuring the uniformity of measurements;

- Development and examination of sections of metrological support of other federal and state programs, including programs for the creation and development of production of defense equipment; Realization of the state metrological control: Verification of measurement tools;

- Tests for type approval of measuring instruments, licensing of legal entities and individuals for the manufacture, repair, sale and rental of measuring instruments;

- Realization of the state metrological supervision of the release, condition and application of measurement, certified methods of measurement, standards of units of physical quantities, compliance with metrological rules and regulations; development of principles of optimization of logistical and human resource base of the state metrological service;

- Certification of measurement procedures;

- Calibration and certification of measuring instruments, non-sphere of the state metrological control and supervision;

- Accreditation of metrological services and other legal entities and individuals on various types of metrology;

- Accreditation of verification, calibration, measurement, testing and analytical laboratories, laboratories of nondestructive and radiation monitoring as part of operating in the Russian Federation accreditation systems;

- Participation in the work of international organizations whose activities are related with ensuring the uniformity of measurements;

- Development together with the authorized federal executive bodies, the procedure for determining the value of metrological works and regulation of tariffs for these works;

- The organization of training and retraining of metrology;

- Information provision for ensuring the uniformity of measurements;

- Improvement and development of GSI.

State system for ensuring the uniformity of measurements consists of the following subsystems:

- Legal,

- Organizational;

- Technical.

The structure of the State system for ensuring the uniformity of measurements is shown in Figure 1.

ICG state system of measurement uniformity

Legal subsystem - a set of interrelated laws and regulations, united by a common goal orientation and establishing harmonized requirements for the activities of related objects to ensure traceability.

The objects of operations to ensure traceability are:

- A set of legal units of measurement and scales;

- The terminology in the field of metrology;

- Reproduction and transfer of units and scale of measurement values;

- Methods and forms of presentation of the results of measurements and characteristics of error;

- Methods for estimating the error and uncertainty of measurement;

- Procedure for the development and validation of measurement procedures;

- A set of normalized metrological characteristics of measuring instruments;

- Methods for establishing and adjusting the calibration interval;

- Test procedure for the approval of the type of measurement and certification of measuring instruments;

- The procedure of verification and calibration of measuring instruments;

- The procedure for metrological control and supervision;

- The procedure for licensing of individuals and legal entities for the manufacture, repair, sale and rental of measuring instruments;

- Routine tasks, rights and duties of metrological services of the federal executive bodies and entities;

- The procedure for accreditation of verification, calibration, measurement, testing and analytical laboratories, laboratories, non-destructive and radiatsionnogokontrolya as part of operating in the Russian Federation accreditation systems;

- The procedure for accreditation of metrological services and other legal entities and individuals on various types of metrology;

- Terms and definitions for the kinds of measurements;

- State verification scheme;

- Method of verification (calibration) of measuring instruments;

- Measurement procedure.

The regulatory framework of the ICG has over 2,500 mandatory and recommendatory documents regulating all aspects in the field of metrology. Among them are the state and interstate standards, rules of metrology (PR), methodical instructions (MI), guidance documents (RD), guidance (MU), and others.

To Regulation (PR) Metrology includes documents in the field of metrology, establishing mandatory use of organizational and technical and general technical provisions, orders (rules of procedure), techniques (methods, techniques) of work, as well as mandatory requirements for registration of the results of these studies. By the recommendations are instruments in the field of metrology, containing voluntary for the application of organizational and technical and general technical provisions, orders (rules of procedure), techniques (methods, techniques) of work, as well as recommended - the rules

registration of results of this work.

The main fundamental document in the area of ​​traceability is GOST R 8.000 "GSI. The main provisions. "

Technical subsystems are:

- A set of state standards, measurement standards and measurement scales;

- A set of military standards - national standards of provision;

- A set of reference materials of composition and properties of substances and materials;

- A set of standard reference data on physical constants and properties of substances and materials;

- Measuring instruments and test equipment, necessary for the implementation of the metrological control and supervision;

- A set of special buildings for the high-frequency measurements in metrology purposes;

- A set of scientific research, reference, test verification, calibration and measuring laboratories and equipment.

The technical basis is made up of 114 national standards of 76 units higher precision of about 15 million. Working standards and test tools, more than 8,000 types of standard samples.

Organizational subsystem ICG - a set of units of the State Standard of Russia performing the functions to ensure traceability.

Organizational subsystem ICG consists of the following metrological services to ensure uniformity of measurements:

- The state metrological service;

- Other state metrological service;

- Metrological services of federal executive bodies and entities.

The State Metrology Service includes:

- Subdivisions of the central apparatus of the State Standard of Russia performing the functions of planning, management, monitoring activities to ensure

uniformity of measurements on inter-sectoral level - state scientific metrological centers;

- Bodies of the State metrological service on the territory of the republics within the Russian Federation, autonomous region, autonomous areas, territories, regions, counties and cities.

To other public services for ensuring the uniformity of measurements include:

- State service of time and frequency and determine the parameters of the Earth's rotation;

- The State Service for reference materials of composition of substances and materials (SSSS);

- The State Service for standard reference data on physical constants and properties of substances and materials (GDSN).

Organizational, scientific and practical activities to ensure the unity of measurements carried out by 11 research metrology institutes and centers, about 100 UCM State Standard of Russia, more than 30 thousand. Metrological services organizations and enterprises.

Methodical measurement error

Methodical errors may occur due to the imperfections of the chosen method of measurement, the limited accuracy of the empirical formulas used to describe the phenomenon, laid the basis for the measurement, as well as the limited precision used in the equations of physical constants. This also should include and errors due to mismatch of the accepted model of the real object measurements due to assumptions and simplifications. In some cases, the impact of these assumptions on the measurement error is insignificant, in others it may be significant. An example of an error caused by a simplified method of measurement, is the neglect of the mass of air displaced, according to the law of Archimedes, weights when weighing in the balance scales. During the measurement of workers it is usually neglected. However, accurate measurements with it have to be considered, and is altered. Another example is the measurement of the volume bodies whose shape is taken (measurement model) geometrically correct by measuring the insufficient number of linear dimensions. Thus, a significant methodological errors will be the result of measurement by measuring the volume of the space of the same length, the same width and the same height. For a more accurate measurement of the volume should measure these parameters on each wall in several places.The errors of the method common to all the measurement methods that are based on these experiments, no rigorous theoretical justification. Examples of such methods are various methods for measuring the hardness of metals. One of them (Rockwell) determines the hardness of the immersion in the test metal tip a certain form under the action of a certain force impulse. The basis of other methods (Vrinelya and Vickers) put the relationship between the hardness and size of the prints left by the tip under certain conditions of exposure. Each of these methods measures the hardness of their scales, and transfer measurement results from one scale to another is done approximately. The reason is that these methods use different phenomena, supposedly characterizing the hardness.Error estimation formulas and physical constants often known. When they are unknown error empirical formulas translate into the category of casual using randomization reception. For this purpose, the same value is measured by several methods and the experimental data it is calculated weighted average value.

Analytical measurements differ from others in that they include a number of preliminary steps: sampling the analyzed object and its delivery to the measurement laboratory, storage, preparation of samples for instrumental operations (cleaning, drying, transfer to another phase state, and so on. D.), Cooking calibration solutions, and others. These operations are in characterizing the accuracy of the measurement method are often not taken into account, considering the measurement of only the instrumental part. It is easy to prove the fallacy of this position. Recall that the error of measurement - the measurement result is a deviation from the actual measured value. Suppose you want to estimate some value, reflecting the physical - chemical properties of the object (for example, the density of the product batch, the contents of the chemical components in the lake water or soil of the village). The actual value of this quantity should characterize the object, rather than a selected sample of it. It is interested consumer measurement information, and if there has been a distortion of the measurement result, then it does not matter at what stage it happened. Therefore, the error of the analytical measurement error should be taken into account and preparatory operations.

The need to integrate these operations due to the fact that the risk of introducing systematic errors in the measurement results of these operations is incomparably higher than that of the tool. In practice, the systematic measurement error can occur as a result of these operations the effect of the many possible sources, including:

• extracted from the measurement object sample may not be representative (adequately represent the measured value),

• Measured sample may change over time elapsed after the sampling was carried out,

• the impact of non-informative parameters (interfering sample components), I

• pollution sampling and laboratory glassware used in the preparation of the sample,

• inaccurate measurement of environmental parameters,

• measurement error of the masses and volumes,

• error preparing calibration solutions.

Evaluation of errors of measurement results

In the previous section the definition formulated as a result of comparing the measurement of the physical quantity measured with a known value, adopted for the unit.

In this chapter we will focus in more detail on the specific reasons affecting these categories, based on the main conclusions of the theory of errors.

Any matching process measures the measured object can never be perfect in the sense that the procedure repeated several times, always give different results. Therefore, on the one hand, it is impossible to directly measure the process to obtain actual measured value, and, on the other hand, the results of any two repetitive measurements will differ from each other. Reasons for discrepancies can be very diverse, but they can be conditionally divided into two groups.

The first group of discrepancies of measurement results - Ability to change the properties of the object to be measured. For example, when measuring the length of the size of the object may change under the influence of temperature - a well-known property of bodies expand and shrink with changes in temperature. In other kinds of measurements found the same situation, ie. E. Under the influence of the temperature may change the pressure in the closed gas volume, may change the resistance of the conductor, surface, and reflectance r. D.

The second group of differences - the imperfection of measuring instruments, measurement procedures or inadequate qualifications and insufficient care for the operator. This idea is quite obvious, however, estimating measurement errors often overlooked that these factors must be considered in combination. Measuring practice shows that crude device can get close enough to the true value of the result by improving the technique and art of the operator. Conversely, the most accurate instrument gives erroneous results if the measurement process are not met prerequisites for the realization of the method.

As an example, weighing on Bezmenov -dvuhplechevom lever with load at one end and with the measured weight at the other end. This measurement tool itself is very primitive, but if carefully calibrate and implement reusable measure the desired value, the result may not be accurate enough. An example of the opposite of the plan is measuring the composition of a substance. If we want to measure the chlorine content in the water and sulfur dioxide in the flue gas and will not follow the procedure established by the experience, the most accurate analyzer will give the wrong result, t. To. Composition of the sample during transport can change dramatically.

Considering the factors of both groups, it is impossible to get exactly the measured physical quantity. All of this real-life situations and unnecessary. The measuring technique there is the criterion of adequacy, ie the difference between the measurement result and the true value is always determined by the specific task. There is no point, for example, to measure the climatic parameters of the room with an accuracy better than 1%. On the other hand, the playback units of length such accuracy is clearly not provide the necessary requirements.

It is necessary in this type of assessment to take into account the higher cost of a precision instrument, a large bulkiness, higher power consumption, less rapid measurement, etc. etc. And, of course, you should always keep in mind that the measurements themselves are never carried out for the sake of measurement. They always have a subordinate nature, that is. E. Are performed in order to then perform any action. Even if the device detects the absence of the need to do something, that in itself is the purpose of the measurement. For example, the set temperature of the human body to 36,6 ° C achieved a certain goal - any action to temperature changes do not need to take.

The subordinate nature of the measurement does not detract from their importance in the whole of human life. Suffice it to say that the great discoveries of our time, such as thermonuclear reactions or lasers basically had careful measurements of the properties of atoms and characteristics of their interaction. In general, the art work is unthinkable without measurement.

The spread of the results of single measurements of the same magnitude, associated with any changes in the properties of the measured object, or with non-ideal measurement procedure makes relates to the preparation of each specific outcome as a probabilistic process. Accordingly, the description and calculation errors become applicable theory of probability and statistics becomes an integral part of procedures for assessing the accuracy of measurements in the evaluation of errors.

Considering the series kinds of errors and how to minimize them, repeat the determination error.

"Measurement error is the difference between the measurement result D X and the actual value of this quantity, which implies its value found experimentally and so approaching the true Q, which for this purpose it may be used instead", ie. E.

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 (3.1)

Measurement error associated with the variability of the size of the object to be measured, and the imperfection of measuring devices can be divided into two groups.

Errors due to factors that vary with repeated measurements at random, are intermittent and difficult to predict. These are called random errors. Sometimes these changes can occur very strong, such as a sharp change of a single power supply unit. In this case, the error is significantly exceeds the limits determined by the course of the measurement process as a whole and it is called gross error or blunder.

Errors determining factor or permanently distort the measurement result, or constantly changing during the measurement are called systematic errors. These errors are difficult to determine if their value is less than or comparable to random errors.

To identify and address systematic errors there is a certain set of techniques and methods that will be discussed in a special section.

Let random errors like σ, as a systematic Θ. The total deviation Δ can be represented as

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 (3.2)

To obtain the results minimally different from the true value, is carried out multiple observations of measured value and then subjected to mathematical treatment of the data array. In most cases, analysis of the results is carried out by plotting the error Δ of the number observation, building such facilities as a function of the observation time, or in ascending order of error. Let us consider the dependence of the result of measurement of time.

In this case, the error Δ is a random function of time, which differs from the classical functions of mathematical analysis that it is impossible to say exactly how important it is to take in the time t. You can specify only the probability of its values ​​in a given time interval. In a series of experiments, consisting of a series of successive observations, we get one implementation of this function (Fig. 3.1) Fig. 03.01. By the definition of the measurement error.

By repeating the series of measurements, we get a new realization, different from the first.

Implementations vary due to the influence of factors of occurrence of random error, and factors that determine the bias, is equally manifest for each time t, for all implementation. The measurement error corresponding to each time point ti, called a section of the random function Δ (t). In each section you can find the average value for all of the same implementation. It is obvious that this component will determine bias Θ. If the terms of the values ​​Θ for all times to conduct a smooth curve, it will characterize the temporal trend of error.

Deviation of the concrete realization of the mean values ​​for the time t will give the value of the random error σi. These deviations are different for different implementation. The latter are already members of random variables, t. E. The objects of study of the theory of probability. Thus, we have the equation: Δ = σ + Θ.

Here, the index i means belonging to the measurement at the i point in time, and the index j - affiliation kj implementation.

We now return to the main categories and concepts Toeriya pogreshnosteyteorii errors.

Measurement Accuracy Measurement accuracy - the concept of the quality of measurements. The higher the accuracy, the smaller the systematic and random error. Sometimes klasstochnosti meter is expressed as the error, referred to the end of the scale, t. E.

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 (3.3)

where X - the absolute value of the measured value, referred to the end of the scale.

Accuracy of measurement characterizes a lack of or a little bias, t. E. A case where

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 (3.4)

The reproducibility of measurements characterizes the smallness of the random error in repeated measurements of the same magnitude in the same conditions by the same method, t. E.

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 (3.5)

Convergence measurements characterizes the proximity to each other the results of measurements made in different conditions, different methods and different instances and similar devices on different types of devices.