25. Abbreviation as a way of word-building.

Abbreviation is the word formation process in which a word or phrase is shortened. Initialisms are a type of abbreviation formed by the initial letters of a word or phrase. Although abbreviation is largely a convention of written language, sometimes abbreviations carry over into spoken language. For example:

Written Abbreviations

Apr. – April

cm – centimeter(s)

d. – died, died in

dept. – department

Dr. – doctor

Jr. – Junior

Mr. – Mister

oz – ounce(s)

Sun. – Sunday

yd – yard(s)

Spoken-Written Abbreviations

A.M. – ante meridiem [in the morning]

B.C.E. – Before Common Era

HIV – Human Immunodeficiency Virus

i.e. – id est [that is]

JFK – John Fitzgerald Kennedy

OJ – orange juice

PMS – premenstrual syndrome

RSVP – répondez s'il vous plait

VIP – very important person

Abbreviation is related to both the word formation processes of clipping and blending.

26. Characteristic features of graphical abbreviations.

Graphical abbreviations are the result of shortening of words and word-groups only in written speech while orally the corresponding full forms are used. They are used for the economy of space and effort in writing.The oldest group of graphical abbreviations in English is of Latin origin. In Russian this type of abbreviation is not typical. In these abbreviations in the spelling Latin words are shortened, while orally the corresponding English equivalents are pronounced in the full form,e.g. for example (Latin exampli gratia), a.m. - in the morning (ante meridiem), No - number (numero), i. e. - that is (id est) etc. Some graphical abbreviations of Latin origin have different English equivalents in different contexts, e.g. p.m. can be pronounced "in the afternoon" (post meridiem) and "after death" (post mortem).

27. Characteristic features of initial abbreviations.

Initial abbreviations (initialisms) are the bordering case between graphical and lexical ones. They are formed from the first letters of the words to be shortened. When they appear in the language to denote some new institutions (enterprises), they become closer to graphical abbreviations because full forms of them are used in oral speech. But being used for some time they acquire the shortened form of pronouncing and thus become closer to lexical abbreviations: DJ (disc jockey), VJ (video jockey), 3D (three-dimensional). They are mostly used in the names of the companies, trademarks or products.

Strictly speaking, there are three types of initialisms in English:

1. a) initialisms with alphabetical reading, such as UK, USA, FRG;

2. b) initialisms which are read like words, such as UNESCO, UNO, NATO;

3. c) initialisms which coincide with English words in their sound forms (acronyms), such as CLASS (Computer-based Laboratory for Automated School System).

28. Types of initial abbreviations, peculiarities of their pronunciation.

Initial abbreviations (initialisms) are the bordering case between graphical and lexical ones. They are formed from the first letters of the words to be shortened. When they appear in the language to denote some new institutions (enterprises), they become closer to graphical abbreviations because full forms of them are used in oral speech. But being used for some time they acquire the shortened form of pronouncing and thus become closer to lexical abbreviations: DJ (disc jockey), VJ (video jockey), 3D (three-dimensional). They are mostly used in the names of the companies, trademarks or products.

Strictly speaking, there are three types of initialisms in English:

4. a) initialisms with alphabetical reading, such as UK, USA, FRG;

5. b) initialisms which are read like words, such as UNESCO, UNO, NATO;

6. c) initialisms which coincide with English words in their sound forms (acronyms), such as CLASS (Computer-based Laboratory for Automated School System).

29. Lexical abbreviations. Types of lexical abbreviations.

Lexical abbreviations may be used both in written and in oral speech. Lexical abbreviation is the process of forming a word out of the initial elements (letters, morphemes) of a word combination by a simultaneous operation of shortening and compounding.

30. Classification of clipped words final clipping (apocope), initial clipping (apheresis), medial clipping (syncope).

Clipping consists in cutting off two or more syllables of a word. Words that have been shortened at the end are called apocope (doc-doctor, mit-mitten, vet-veterinary). Words that have been shortened at the beginning are called aphaeresis (phone-telephone). Words in which some syllables or sounds have been omitted from the middle are called syncope (ma'm - madam, specs - spectacles). Sometimes a combination of these types is observed (tec-detective, frig-refrigerator).

31. Blends. Characteristic features of blends.

Blending is a specific type of shortening. Blends are formed by means of merging parts of words (not morphemes) into a new word. In other words, blending is compounding by means of clipping. In blends two ways of word-building are combined: abbreviation and composition. One of the first blends in English was the word smog (smoke +fog). As a rule, many blends are shortlived. In the language of advertising they are created for a specific aim only: to attract attention of the people with the help of interesting linguistic discoveries: crocoraffe = crocodile + giraffe (the mystical symbol of the company producing toys, clothes, etc. for children). Some of the blendings were so successful that they have already become part of the language: motel = motor + hotel, botel = boat + hotel, airtel = airport + hotel. Because of its influence thousands of blendings appear every year, especially in the language of advertising: casomat = cash + automat, popcert = popular + concert, yarden = yard + garden. Most of them would disappear in the whirlpool of the same blends, but some would survive and enlarge the vocabulary existing universally.