VII. Toward a general theory of nonprofit sector phenomena

While at present there is no general theory of nonprofit sector phenomena, we clearly need one. From the theories reviewed and referred to in this chapter, it should be evident now that the theories of associations and of volunteering/participation have come a long way in the past decade or two, contrary to the conclusion of Tschirhart (2006). There has also been much useful theory proposed in the past few decades regarding the size and nature of the nonprofit sector as a whole and its relationship to other sectors of society (Anheier 2005:Chap. 6; Boris and Steuerle 2006; Clemens 2006). In addition, the theory of nonprofit agencies has made much progress. For instance, there is a reasonably advanced economic literature on the role, behavior, and governance of paid-staff nonprofit agencies (e.g., Anheier and Ben-Ner 2003; Cornforth 2012; Hansmann 1987; Jegers 2009; Steinberg 2006; Van Puyvelde et al. 2012).

A general, multi-level theory of associations is probably within our grasp in the near future, meaning the next 10 years or so. Such a theory will need to integrate the various levels of association theories reviewed here and in some subsequent Handbook chapters.

E. USABLE KNOWLEDGE

Based on the results of research/theory on association prevalence, such prevalence can be increased in a territory by stimulating more resource/support organizations and by increasing civil liberties/democracy, as the most easily affected factors. Given the inductive theory of grassroots and supra-local all-volunteer associations presented, association founders can use the following as a checklist for key decisions about their new associations: member vs. nonmember benefits in their goals, informal vs. formal group style of operation and structure, high vs. low operational autonomy relative to external organizations, large vs. small scope of their territorial activity and membership base, diffuse vs. focused goals, conventional vs. unconventional (deviant) goals and means to achieve them, and the restrictiveness vs. inclusiveness of socio-demographic membership criteria. In fact, founders and leaders of such associations may use all the propositions of the Smith theory of grassroots association structures and processes as a practical checklist. As for paid-staff associations, a number of measures were suggested to improve their governance, including improving board competency, using effective incentive structures for managers, and implementing various board processes such as self-regulation and long-term priority setting.

For DVAs, particularly SMOs, the theories presented here have much practical utility for SMOs seeking optimum impact in securing new advantages (e.g., single issue focus, selective incentives for participation, more bureaucracy, avoid internal factions). Smith’s theory of DVAs also suggests many useful factors to consider in forming or leading such an association. For instance, if founders have ultimately deviant goals in their society, they should begin their group as a DVA, not as a conventional association expecting to be able to convert to a DVA later on.

F. FUTURE TRENDS AND RESEARCH NEEDED

One key future trend we see is a growing interest in developing and testing theory, even rather general theory, in our field of voluntaristics. Such theory, however, tends to be general within the levels of macro-, meso-, and micro-theories. Nonetheless, a clear need exists for a general theory of nonprofit sector phenomena that integrates all three levels. Such general theory must also take into account the distinctions made in this chapter between and among different association types. The distinction between conventional and unconventional (deviant) associations is crucial, as is that between all-volunteer and paid-staff associations. The distinction between local and supra-local associations of any kind is also quite important. And, although not discussed here, the distinction among associations in terms of their member types is important: individuals only, groups or organizations only (as in federations), or both types of members. Many other theoretical points and issues need to be included, as identified in passing in the many chapters of this Handbook.

Probably the most important agenda for future empirical research is much further testing and elaboration of the various theories sketched in this chapter, as well as testing competing or alternative theories. More extensive treatment of theories of volunteering and participation will be found in Chapter 31 and earlier chapters in Part IV of the Handbook. The S-Theory sketched here may be compared with the more narrowly focused theories of volunteering and participation discussed in Chapter 31.

G. CROSS-REFERENCES

Chapters 7, 10A, 10B, 38, 39, 46, and 47.

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