Vernacular names

Eng.- Cubebs, Tailed pepper, Tailed cubebs, Java pepper. Hindi- Seetal chini, Kabab chini, Val-milaku, Chinikabab. Beng.- Kabab-chini,

Sugandhamaricha, Sitalachini. Guj.- Chanakabab, Chinikabab, Kababchini,

Tadamiri, Chinnkabale. Kan.- Gandhamenasu, Balamenasu. Mal.-

Cheenamulaku, Takkolam, Val-milaku, Valmulaku. Mar.- Kankola, Himsi

mire, Kababa chini, Kankola, Chinnkabale. Punj.- Kababchini, Sardchini

Tam.- Valli milaku, Valmilagu, Val-milaku. Tel.- Chalavamiriyalu,

Tokamiriyalu, Balamenasu, Sinban-karawa. Arab.- Kababah, Kabab sini,

Habbul urus, Kibabeh. Assam- Kakkol, Kababcheni. Kash.- Kushfal,

Kababchini, Luit-mars. Oriya- Kababchini. Pers.- Kababachini, Kibabeh,

Kbab-chini, Hab-el-arus. Urdu- Kababchini. Kon.- Kankola, Himsimiri

(Nadkarni, 1976; Anonymous, 1969; Watt, 1972; Anonymous, 2001; Sharma,

1978; Vaidya, 1968; Anonymous, 1998; Anonymous, 1995; B.N., 1982;

Chatterjee and Pakrashi, 1994; Anonymous, 2000a).

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION

Gregarious large perennial, woody or liana like climber with ash grey, smooth, flexuous, jointed stem and branches, rooted at the joints. Leaves

simple, alternate, entire, petiolate, glabrous, ovate, oblong with

cordate or rounded base, acuminate, coriaceous and very strongly nerved. Flowers dioecious, in spikes. Fruit sub-globose, drupe, 6-8 mm in diam.,

apiculate and distinctly stalked, green becoming black and wrinkled on

170

KANKOLA Piper cubeba Linn. f.

171

drying. Flowering and Fruiting: September-December (Anonymous, 1969;

Anonymous, 1995; Bhattacharjee, 2000; Kurup et al., 1979; Chauhan,

1999; Mukerji, 1953).

DISTRIBUTION

Cultivated in India, mostly in Karnataka, but not on a commercial scale. A

native of Indonesia (Anonymous, 1969). It is indigenous to Java, Sumatra,

Borneo and Malaya Archipelago(Nadkarni,1976). Also cultivated in Sri

Lanka, England, West Indies (Chopra, et al.,1958, 1986; Anonymous, 1998;

Anonymous, 1995; Anonymous, 2003).

PART(S) USED

Fruit and oil (Sharma, 1978; B.N., 1982).

ACTIONS AND USES

The fruit is acrid, bitter, thermogenic, aromatic, stimulant, carminative,

diuretic, expectorant (Nadkarni, 1976), analgesic, dentifrice, anti-

inflammatory, anthelmintic, deobstruant, vulnerary, appetising,

digestive, stomachic, cardiotonic, rejuvenating, emmenagogue,

sedative and antiseptic. They are useful in bodyache, odontalgia,

cephalalgia, halitosis, inflammation, helminthiasis, worms infestation,

wounds and ulcers, catarrh, anorexia, dyspepsia, flatulence,

haemorrhoids, cardiac debility, cough, asthma, bronchitis and various

respiratory disorders, amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, gravels, renal

bladder stones, strangury, genito-urinary diseases (like gonorrhoea),

rheumatism and hay fever (Chopra et al., 1958). Fruits contain an essential

oil beneficial as a local remedy in the form of lozengel of relief throat

troubles when taken internally. It is found to exert a positive antiseptic effect

on urine hence used in genitourinary diseases (Chatterjee and Pakrashi,

1994; Anonymous, 1995).

AYURVEDIC PROPERTIES

Rasa - Katu, Tikta (S.S.Su.46.202).

Guna - Laghu, Ruksha, Tikshna (S.S.Su.46.202).

Vipaka - Katu (S.S.Su.46.202).

Veerya - Ushna (S.S.Su.46.202).

Doshaghnata - Kaphavatashamaka (Sharma, 1978; B.N., 1982).

Karma - Raktotkleshaka, Uttejaka, Shothahara, Daurgandhyanashana,

Krimighna, Vranaropana, Rochana, Deepana, Pachana, Anulomana,

Hridya, Shleshmanissaraka, Kaphaghna, Vajikarana, Artavajanana,

172

Mootrala, Ruchiprada, Trishnashamaka, Mukhadaurgandhyahara,

Mukhajedyanashaka, Bastishodhana (Sharma, 1978; B.N., 1982).

Rogaghnata - Kaphavataja vikara, Shotha, Vedana, Vatavyadhi

(C.S.Su.5.77), Mukharoga (A.H.U.22.93; C.S.Su.5.77), Galaroga,

Dantaroga (A.H.U.22.93), Shirahshoola, Agnimandya, Aruchi,

Vishtambhi, Arsha, Hridroga, Kasa, Shwasa (C.S.Ci.28.153;

S.S.Ci.24.21; A.H.Ci.21.78), Kashtartava, Rajorodha, Dhwajabhanga,

Klaibya, Jeernapuyameha, Mootrakrichchhra, Andhya, Bastishotha,

Jeernashwasaneekashotha Daurgandhya (S.S.Su.46.202) (Sharma, 1978;

B.N., 1982).

Doses : Powder- 1-3 gm; Oil- 1-3 drops (Sharma, 1978; B.N., 1982).

SIDDHA PROPERTIES

Siddha Name - VALMILAGU

Suvai (Taste) - Thuvarppu (Astringent). Veeriyam (Potency) - Seetham (Cold).

Vibakam (Transformation) - Inippu (Sweet).

Gunam (Pharmacological action) - Ushnamundaakki (Stimulant),

Kozhaiyagattri (Expectorant).

Siddha pharmaceutical preparations - Samranipoo pathanmgam,

Venpoosani ney, Narathai ilagam, Kungumapoo mathirai, Impooral ilaam.

Uses: Used in treatment of respiratory diseases and in Leucorrhea.

PHARMACOGNOSY

Macroscopic

Fruit- Wrinkled, rounded, 5-7 mm in diam., light brown to dark brown,

about 7 mm long stalk attached; pericarp reticulately wrinkled, red to

slightly brown, testa fused with pericarp; texture hard and stony, seed

single, albumen white and oily; odour aromatic, spicy and characteristic;

taste pungent and slightly bitter.

Microscopic

Transverse section of fruit shows an outer layer of epidermis, externally covered with thick cuticle, hypodermis made up of small group of stone

cells, a row of 2-5 small, crushed, brown and thick-walled cells below;

mesocarp composed of large, thin-walled parenchymatous cells, oil cells

and vascular bundles. Parenchyma of mesocarp containing rounded starch

grains and prisms of calcium oxalate; large polyhedral cells of perisperm

filled with polyhedral starch grains; endocarp of multi-layered sclereids

heavily lignified with narrow lumen; testa and tegmen composed of

173

elongated cells, tegmen cells hyaline, kernel cells greyish in colour, large

amount of perisperm having frequently a central cavity. Oil cells are

distributed throughout the perisperm and absence of beaker cells

(Anonymous, 2001; Mukerji, 1953; Brindha et al., 1981; Anonymous,

1998).

Powder microscopy

Fruit powder brownish-black to dark brown in colour; shows fragments of outer and inner epidermis of pericarp, groups of polygonal parenchyma

cotaining few starch grains, fragments of perisperm cells packed with small

starch grain, cells of inner sclerenchymatous layer having very thick pitted

walls, lignified thick walled rounded sclerenchymatous cells of the pedicel,

fragments of vessels bearing annular, pitted thickening, groups of

elongated brown coloured wavy walled cells of outer layer of testa,

polygonal straight walled cells of centred layer of testa, abundant oil cells

and starch grain (Henry and Colline, 1904).

Physical constants

Foreign matter- Not more than 2%; Total ash- Not more than 8%; Acid insoluble ash- Not more than 1%; Alcohol-soluble extractive- Not less than

14%; Water soluble extractive Not less than 11%; Volatile oil 10 to 18%;

Crude fibres 23.05% (Anonymous, 2001; Brindha et al., 1981).

Volatile oil colourless or pale yellow or bluish green having:

Specific gravity: 0.910-0.935.

Optical rotation: -20 to -35.

Refractive index at 20:-1.480 -1.502.

Solubility : freely soluble in dehydrated alcohol; one in eighteen parts of

alcohol (90%). Fraction Distilling between 250 -280 - Not less than 60%

(Mukerji, 1953).

Thin Layer Chromatography:

TLC of the methanol extract of fruits on applying on pre-coated silica gel „G‟

plate (5 x 15 cm) using Toluene: ethyl acetate (70:30) as solvent system and

spraying the plate with 20% sulphuric acid in methanol and heating at 100C

for 5 minutes gives five spots at Rf. 0.13 (light blue), 0.24 (dark blue), 0.58

(pinkish red), 0.71 (bluish violet) and 0.77 (brownish red) (Anonymous,

1998).

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

Plant: New lignans (8R, 8'R)-4-hydroxycubebinone and (8R, 8'R, 9'S)-5- methoxyclusin and two new sesquiterpenes, (5 alpha, 8 alpha)-2-oxo-

1(10), 3, 7(11)-guaiatrien-12, 8-olide and (1, 2, 5, 810)-1, 10-

174

epoxy-2-hydroxy-3, 7(11)-guaiadien-12, 8-olide, (-)-clusin, (-)-yatein,

ethoxyclusin, and (-)-dihydroclusin (Usia et al., 2005).

Fruits: (-)Cubebin (Prabhu and Mulchandani, 1985; Batterbee et al.,

1969a), (-)clusin, (-)hinokinin, asaronaldehyde, (-)deoxypodorhizon

(Koul et al., , 1983), (-) dihydrocubebin (Dwuma-Badu et al., 1975),

(2R, 3R) -2-(3, 4, 5-trimethoxy benzyl)-3-(3, 4-methylene-

dioxybenzyl)-1, 4-butanediol (-)-dihydroclusin, (3R, 4R)-3, 4-bis-(3, 4,

5-trimethoxybenzyl)tetrahydro-2-furanol [(-)-cubebinin], (-)-yatein (Prabhu

and Mulchandani, 1985), -O-ethyl cubebin, -ethylcubenin,

dihydrocubenin monoacetate, 5-methoxythiokinin (Badheka et al., 1987),

cubebin (Chatterjee et al., 1968; Batterbee et al., 1969b), (-)-

cubebininolide (cordigerine), (-)-2-(3", 4"-methylenedioxybenzyl)-3-(3‟,

4‟-dimethoxybenzyl)butyrolactone, (-)-isoyatein, (-)-cubebinone and (-)-

di-O-methyl thujaplicatin methyl ether (Badheka et al., 1986), bisasarin

(Yuan et al., 1982), cubebinic ether, cubebinol, isocubebinic ether,

hibalactone, dehydrocubebin, isohinokinin, (+) - hinokinin (Batterbee et

al., 1969b).

Essential oil: Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons-bicyclosesquiphellandrene, 1-

epibicyclosesquiphellandrene, zonarene, calamenene, epizonarene,- cadinene, cubenene,-muurolene (Terhune et al., 1974).

Seed oil: Palmitic, linolic, oleic, linolenic, stearic, arachidic, behenic

and hexadecenoic acids (Bedi et al., 1971), cubebol, cubebic acid,

piperidine, sesamin (Prabhu and Mulchandani, 1985).

PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES

Plant was reported to have antibacterial (Kar and Jain, 1971; Jain et al.,

1974), anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive (Choi and Hwang, 2003),

antifungal (Rao and Nigam, 1976), anthelmintic (Sharma et al., 1979),

antidysenteric, antiasthmatic, diuretic, carminative, sedative, antiseptic,

activity against hepatitis crisus (Hussein et al., 2000) and antioxidants

(Karthikeyan and Rani, 2003) activities.

The essential oil of P. cubeba showed antibacterial activity against B.

subtilis, V. cholerae, etc. The oil had no appreciable effect on E. coli, S.

aureus, S. lutea and Micrococcus sp (Kar and Jain 1971; Jain et al., 1974;

Rao and Nigam, 1976).

The oil of P. cubeba also showed significant antifungal activity against

Aspergillus flavus, A. fumigatus, Trichoderma virid, Curvularia lunata,

Alternaria tenuis, Penicillium sp, P. javanicum, P. striatum and Fusarium

solani (Rao and Nigam, 1976).

175

The essential oil from fruits has also reported for anthelmintic activity against

earth worms and tape worms in vitro (Sharma et al.,1979).

THERAPEUTIC EVALUATION

Several malignant cases (10 patients) of advanced stages of cancer management has been dealt with Ayurvedic herbal drugs. Malignant cases

include, Squamous cell carcinoma, breast cancer, lung cancer, Hodgkins

lymphoma, vocal cord cancer, multiple myeoloma, adenocarcinoma.

Patients were administered with Ayurvedic preparations made of plant

materials such as Mesua ferrea, Asparagus racemosus, Adhatoda vasica,

Tinospora cordifolia. Hemidesmus indicus, Withania somnifera, Smilax

glabra, Piper cubeba, Piper longum, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Tribulus

terrestris, Pterocarpus santalinus and Terminalia belerica. It was found

that, herbal mixture was an effective treatment in advanced malignacies

though not a total cure (Kulkarni, 1998).

Herbal cough syrup containing eleven herbal ingredients including Piper

cubeba, Ocimum sanctum, Curcuma longa, Adhatoda vasica, Aloe

barbadensis, Solanum indicum etc. showed efficacy in thinning of bronchial

secretion in case of acute bronchial trachiobronchitis (Jayaram et al., 1994).

Piperine, the active principle of Piper species was explored as a single dose

in patients with uncontrolled epilepsy on the steady-state pharmacokinetics of

phenytoin. In patients piperine increased significantly the mean plasma

concentration of phenytoin, possibly by increasing the absorption (Pattanaik

et al., 2006).

FORMULATIONS AND PREPARATIONS

Asava and Arista - Kumaryasava, Khadirarista, Dasmoolarista,

Vasakasava, Jirakarista, Drakshasava, Babbularista.

Avaleha and Paka - Guduchyadi modaka, Puga khanda, Jirakadi modaka.

Taila - Chandanadi taila, Bala taila, Vayucchaya Surendra taila.

Vati and gutika - Khadiradi gutika (mukharoga).

Vartti (Netrabindu and anjana) - Muktadi mahaanjana.

Rasayoga - Navaratnarajanrganka rasa (Anonymous, 1978, 2000).

TRADE AND COMMERCE

Fruits are largely imported from Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia

(Nadkarni, 1976; Anonymous, 1969).

Source of Supply - Wild/Forests

Demand 1999-2000 185.9 tonnes

Demand 2004-2005 434.7tonnes

176

Average growth rate of demands - 24.0 % per annum

Market rate - Cubeb oil - Rs. 8000 - 8500 per kg (Anonymous, 2005).

Retail Market Price - Fruits - Rs. 265 per kg. (2006).

SUBSTITUTES AND ADULTERANTS

Some allied species viz., Piper ribesiodes Wall., P. sumatrana, P.

crassipes Korth., P. cannum Blume; P. baccatum Blume, Litsea cubeba

Pers. and African Piper species P. clusii DC. and P. guineense DC. are used

as substitute or adulterants (Anonymous, 1998; Anonymous, 1969; Garg,

1992).

In Indonesia fruits of Litsea cubeba Pers. are employed as a substitute

(Anonymous, 2000a). Bitter fruits of Pericampylus glaucus (Lam) Meerill

and fruits of Schinus molle Linn. are used as substitute and adulterants

(Anonymous, 2000a). Fruits of Vitex altissima Linn. are used as substitute

in South India (Garg, 1992). Fruits of Embelia ribes Burm. f. are also used as

substitute or adulterants for the powder of cubeb (Garg, 1992). The true drug

when treated with sulphuric acid develop a bright red colour while

adulterants give a violet or brownish colour (Anonymous, 1969).

PROPAGATION AND CULTIVATION

The plant is a liana like climber and reported to be cultivated in India, mostly on the lands of Mysore. Climber can be easily grown by planting at the foot

of the shade trees in coffee plantations. The plant is propagated by vegetative

methods. Fruits are collected when fully grown and green. Dried in sunlight

until black and wrinkled (Anonymous, 1969).

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182

KARCHURA

BOTANICAL NAME: Curcuma zedoaria(Christm.) Rosc.

FAMILY: Zingiberaceae

CLASSICAL NAMES

Karchura, Kanchanaka, Nisachhada, Gandhapalasha (In Brihattrayi these

names taken as synonyms of both plants Karchura and Sati) (C.S.; S.S.;

A.H.)

SYNONYMS

Dravida, Durlabha, Gandhamulaka, Gandhasara, Jatala, Kalpaka, Karsha, Sati, Shathi, Shati or sati, Vedhmukhya, Vedhya (Sharma, 1978;

D.N., 1982; B.N., 1982; R.N., 1982).