Alla D.Belova, Doctor of Sciences (Linguistics), Full Professor
Lectures on “Theory of English”
STEREOTYPES IN CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION
Why do we stereotype?
Human interaction presupposes making of assumptions about human behavior.
Sometimes there are assumptions which are impossible to verify…
…But they may serve as the first help to establish contact.
Assumptions, as well as norms, culturally defined clichés, and stereotypes, generally help us find a way in this world…
…by judging and identifying persons as category members rather than individuals
What is a stereotype?
Stereotypes: modern view
Stereotypes are viewed as cognitive elements of culturally /socially specific knowledge and exist as mental, formalized language and behavior schemes.
They are expressed in explicit and implicit ways and might have positive, negative evaluative meaning.
We can identify persons from:
non-verbal identification signs, i.e. wearing uniforms
specific characteristic
additional characteristic which are usually personality characteristics
The important feature of a stereotype…
…is the attribution of these additional characteristics to all members of the group.
This feature has provoked further questions:
why, within a particular culture, certain attributes get assigned to certain groups?
why do we make categorical judgments?
How do different sciences treat the notion of stereotyping?
Study of stereotyping
Stereotypes are “simplified pictures in our heads of people and events in the world”
W. Lippman, “Public Opinion” (1922)
“Stereotype is a word or phrase used to give a group general and abstract characteristics which are not supported by sound reasoning or scientific investigation” C.G. Young (1957)
“Stereotypes are undesirable and should be eradicated” Brigham (1971)
“Categorical judgments can be very helpful in anticipating events. Human mind forms categories, and generalizes about categories. So, not overgeneralization, but cultural absolutism or ethnocentrism of stereotypes is what makes them false”
Stereotypes are determined by the fact of group agreement (= social stereotypes)
Social stereotypes can change, but this process is rather slow
Social stereotypes get more clear and hostile with inter-group social tension; then they are difficult to manage and modify
Stereotypes are acquired in an early age and used long before clear impressions of one or another groups appear
Nowadays, stereotypes are viewed as:
stable general picture or a number of traits typical for a group and shared by the majority
cognitive elements of communication process
culture - determined pictures of the world that exist both in a cognitive and verbal form
Stereotypes are a social phenomenon while stereotyping is a cognitive mechanism of intergroup perception.
A psychological process of stereotyping is just a mechanism of forming stereotypes, but not its cause. Determinants of the content of stereotype are social, not psychological factors.
Stereotypes are studied via
Experiments
Bochner: “newspaper announcement”
Gärtner: “lost number”
Katz & Braly (1930s), Gilbert (1950s): traits list
Associative experiment
Projective drawing
Content analysis
Questionnaire, interviewing
Stereotypes are divided into:
a. Ethnic stereotypes
b. Gender stereotypes
c. Occupational stereotypes
d. Age stereotypes
e. Deviant groups
a. Ethnic stereotypes
All Mexicans are lazy and came to the USA illegally.
Italians and French people ae the best lovers.
All Jewish people are greedy.
All Irish people drunks and eat potatoes.
All Americans are generally considered to be friendly, generous and tolerant, but also arrogant, impatient and domineering.
All Mexicans are lazy and came to the USA illegally.
Italians and French people ae the best lovers.
All Jewish people are greedy.
All Irish people drunks and eat potatoes.
All Americans are generally considered to be friendly, generous and tolerant, but also arrogant, impatient and domineering.
Stereotypes and jokes
+20°: Гавайцы включают отопление.
+10°: Американцев трясет. Русские сажают огурцы в огородах.
+5°: Вы можете видеть свое дыхание. Испанские машины не заводятся. Норвежцы идут купаться.
+1°: Итальянские машины не заводятся. Русские едут в машинах с опущенными стеклами.
0°: В Америке замерзает вода. В России вода загустевает.
-5°: Французские машины не заводятся.
-10°: Русские планируют отпуск в Австралию.
-15°: Кошка настаивает спать в вашей постели. Норвежцы надевают свитера.
-18°: В Нью-Йорке домовладельцы включают отопление.
-20°: Американские машины не заводятся. На Аляске надевают футболки.
-25°: Немецкие машины не заводятся. Гавайцы вымерли. -30°: Кошка настаивает спать в вашей пижаме.
-35°: Слишком холодно, чтобы думать. Японские машины не заводятся.
-40°: Вы планируете двухнедельную горячую ванну. Шведские машины не заводятся.
-42°: В Европе не функционирует транспорт.
-45°: Греки, испанцы, итальянцы вымерли.
-50°: Веки смерзаются, когда вы моргаете. На Аляске закрывают форточку в ванной.
-60°: Белые медведи двинулись на юг.
-73°: Финский спецназ эвакуирует Санта-Клауса из Лапландии. Русские надевают ушанки.
-114°: Замерзает этиловый спирт. Жители Аляски вымирают.
-273°: Абсолютный ноль, останавливается атомарное движение.
-274°: В аду замерзают черти. Шведская сборная замерзает на поле, русская сборная становится чемпионом мира по футболу.
Paradise is where cooks are French, mechanics are German, policemen are British, lovers are Italian and it is all organized by the Swiss. Hell is where cooks are British, policemen are German, lovers are the Swiss, mechanics are French, and it is all organized by Italians
b. Gender stereotypes
Men are strong and can do any work.
Men are the “backbone”/
Women are not as smart as men.
Guys are messy and unclean.
All blonds are not intelligent.
Only anorexic women can become models.
c.Occupational /Job stereotypes
d.Age stereotypes
All children don’t enjoy healthy food.
All teenagers are rebels.
Girls are only concerned about physical appearance.
What can be an object of stereotyping?
Sources of stereotypes
Mass media
Literature
Folklore
Environment (friends, relatives etc.)
Realities as perceived by other nations
National concepts
Political, economic, cultural activities, customs, appearance, clothing, national symbols, key national figures
Ethnic jokes
Paradise is where cooks are French, mechanics are German, policemen are British, lovers are Italian and it is all organized by the Swiss.
Hell is where cooks are British, policemen are German, lovers are the Swiss, mechanics are French, and it is all organized by Italians
Reasons for stereotyping
Motivational
“Scapegoat theory” “Authoritarian personality” theory Intergroup competition
Cognitive
“Faulty” thinking
Sources of stereotypes
Mass media
Literature
Folklore
Environment (friends, relatives etc.)
Realities as perceived by other nations
National concepts
Political, economic, cultural activities, customs, appearance, clothing, national symbols, key national figures
Ethnic jokes
Reasons for stereotyping
Motivational
“Scapegoat theory” “Authoritarian personality” theory Intergroup competition
Cognitive
“Faulty” thinking
How are stereotypes revealed?
What is the linguistic expression of stereotypes?
Ethnic stereotypes are determined by:
real specific traits of the group – object of stereotyping
the specifics of perceiving these traits in the conscience of the group doing the stereotyping
a set of economical, political and cultural relations between these two groups
Facts that might influence communication
There is an illusion of a link between group membership and psychological traits
the Brits are conservative
the Germans – pedantic.
2. Stereotypes influence information processing. “In-group” is viewed in more positive terms than the “Out-group”.
Stereotypes produce certain expectations of behavior, which, in turn, evoke self-fulfilling prophecies.
Non-verbal : Graphics Sculpture Symbols Emblems Paintings Caricatures