Asyndetic Coordinate Phrases

Asyndetic coordinate phrases consist of two or more syntactically equivalent units.

The units so joined may be any of the parts of speech, function words, or more complex structures taking part in grammatical organisation. The joining may be accomplished by word order and prosody alone, indicated in writing by a comma or dash.

Among asyndetic coordinate phrases we often find structures with more than two constituents. Examples are:

And Soames was alone again. The spidery, dirty, ridiculous business! (Galsworthy)

She was unknown in Paris, and he but little known, so that discretion seemed unnecessary in those walks, talks, visits to concerts, picture-galleries, theatres, little dinners, expeditions to Versailles, St. Cloud, even Fountainebleau. (Ibid.)

They were peevish, crusty, silent, eyeing nothing in particular and moving their feet (Dreiser)

Instances are not few when the joining of the units in a phrase is accomplished by both syndeton and asyndeton.

Gazing at him, so old, thin, white, and spotless, Annette murmured something in French which James did not understand (Galsworthy)

She also noticed that he was smooth-shaven, good-looking and young, but nothing more. (Dreiser)

His master, big, surly and forbidding and with a powerful moustache, glared mercilessly. (Gordon)

The combination of her treachery, defiance, and impudence was too much for him. (Ibid.)

Closely related to coordinate phrases are the so-called appositives. In most cases appositive phrases are made up of two elements which may be: nouns, noun-pronouns and substantivised groups.

Terminal juncture in such phrases is optional. If there is a juncture it is indicated in writing by a comma or a dash. Examples are:

N_com N_com — the bird heron

the mammal whale

N_com N_prop — Professor Вrown

The river Thames

N_prop N — Bradley, the lexicographer

N NP — Soames, the man of property The Republic of France

The of-phrase is added to a noun, not to define its meaning more accurately, but to indicate a class to which a thing or person that has just been characterised as an individual by the governing noun belongs. This pattern is not known in Old English. It has come into the language from Latin through French.

In Modern English all feeling for its origin has been lost for the common class noun after of can now be replaced by a proper name.

Such structures are relatively simple, except for some cases: Old men and women will be served first.

Subordinate word-groups.

Subordinate word-groups are based on the relations of dependence between the constituents. This presupposes the existence of a governing element which is called the head and the dependent element which is called the adjunct (in noun-phrases) or the complement (in verb-phrases).

According to the nature of their heads, subordinate word-groups fall into noun-phrases (NP) – a cup of tea, verb-phrases (VP) – to run fast, to see a house, adjective phrases (AP) – good for you, adverbial phrases (DP) – so quickly, pronoun phrases (IP) – something strange, nothing to do.

The formation of the subordinate word-group depends on the valency of its constituents. Valency is a potential ability of words to combine. Actual realization of valency in speech is called combinability.

The noun-phrase (NP)

Noun word-groups are widely spread in English. This may be explained by a potential ability of the noun to go into combinations with practically all parts of speech. A noun-phrase includes either a single noun or a group of words that function like a single noun.

(Premodifier*) Head (Postmodifier*)

(pre-posed adjunct*) Head (post-posed adjunct*)

Head

Premodifier(s) + Head

Head + Postmodifier(s)

Premodifier(s) + Head + Postmodifier(s)

Difference between a word (noun) and noun-phrase: Fooster ate cabbage. – Fooster ate the cabbage. One of the tests for a nounphrase is that it can be replaced by a pronoun: Fooster ate it. (Cabbage is a noun and a noun phrase.) – Fooster ate the it. (the cabbage - NP).

The a group of words that function like a single noun consists of a noun-head and an adjunct or adjuncts with relations of modification between them. Three types of modification are distinguished here:

1. Premodification that comprises all the units placed before the head: two smart hard-working students. Adjuncts used in pre-head position are called pre-posed adjuncts.

2. Postmodification that comprises all the units all the units placed after the head: students from Boston. Adjuncts used in post-head position are called post-posed adjuncts.

3. Mixed modification that comprises all the units in both pre-head and post-head position: two smart hard-working students from Boston.

NP: Head alone

Single-word NPs will always consist of a headword which is a noun or pronoun:

Form of head Example

1. Noun	1. [Cabbage] is nutritious.
2. Personal pronoun (subject/object)	2. [They] saw her.
3. Personal pronoun (genitive)	3. [Mine] are chartreuse.
4. Indefinite pronoun	4. [None] was/were found.
5. Wh-word	5. [Who] placed the call?

Noun-phrases with pre-posed adjuncts.

In noun-phrases with pre-posed modifiers we generally find

pronouns (demonstartive (that), genitive (her), indefinite (some); numerals, nouns,

adjective phrases (AP) – [My very old memories] return easily;

verbal phrases (VЫP) – [Carelessly organized meetings] annoy everyone.;

nouns in the genitive case or Genitive NP (GenNP) – [My friend's hobby] is knitting.

The last three can be expanded even further: [All my friends hobbies] are interesting.

According to their position all pre-posed adjuncts may be divided into pre-adjectivals and adjectiavals. The position of adjectivals is usually right before the noun-head. Pre-adjectivals occupy the position before adjectivals. They fall into two groups:

a) limiters (to this group belong mostly particles): just, only, even, etc. and

b) determiners (articles, possessive pronouns, quantifiers – the first, the last).

The number of pre-posed adjuncts can sometimes raise the issue of complexity:

Harry's sister's paintings:

Embedding – is a feature of linguistic structure in which one function (or form) is inserted into another function (or form).

Harry's aunt's cousin's son's granddaughter's niese's sister's stepchild's friend's paintings

Premodification of nouns by nouns (N+N) is one of the most striking features about the grammatical organization of English. It is one of devices to make our speech both laconic and expressive at the same time. Noun-adjunct groups result from different kinds of transformational shifts.

The grammatical relations observed in NPs with pre-posed adjuncts may convey the following meanings:

1. subject-predicate relations: weather change;

2. object relations: health service, women hater;

3. adverbial relations: a) of time: morning star,

b) place: world peace, country house,

c) comparison: button eyes,

d) purpose: tooth brush.

It is important to remember that the noun-adjunct is usually marked by a stronger stress than the head.

Of special interest is a kind of ‘grammatical idiom’ where the modifier is reinterpreted into the head: a devil of a man, an angel of a girl.

Noun-phrases with post-posed adjuncts.

NPs with post-posed may be classified according to the way of connection into prepositionless and prepositional.

The basic prepositionless NPs with post-posed adjuncts are: Nadj. – tea strong, ND – the man downstairs, NNum – room ten.

Head + Complex postmodifier

Adjective Phrase (AP) [Anyone fond of kumquats] should buy this recipe book.

Appositive NP (AppNP) [His nominee, an infamous scoundrel,] is unlikely to be elected.

Verbal Phrase (VЫP) [The player to watch] is Blochin.

Relative Clause [The contestant who guesses the title] will win a trip to Hahiti.

Noun Complement Clause [The realization that his hair was false] amused the audience.

The pattern of basic prepositional NPs is N1 prep. N2. The most common preposition here is ‘of’ – a cup of tea, a man of courage. It may have quite different meanings: qualitative - a woman of sense, predicative – the pleasure of the company, objective – the reading of the newspaper, partitive – the roof of the house.

There are a number of tests to identify NPs in this type of phrase:

Pronoun-substitution (Pro-sub) Test: the NP can be replaced by a personal pronoun:

Woody admired [the picture on the wall]. – Woody admired it. –* Woody admired it on the wall. (ungrammatical)

Woody put [the picture] on the wall. – *Woody put it. – Woody put it on the wall.

Wh-question Test: you replace the sequence under analysis by an appropriate question word and turn the sentence into a question:

Woody admired [the paicture on the wall]. – Wat did Woody admire? – *What did Woody admire on the wall?

Woody put [the picture] on the wall. – *What did Woody put? – What did Woody put on the wall?

Passive Test:

Woody admired [the paicture on the wall]. – The picture on the wall was admired by Woody.

Woody put [the picture] on the wall. - *The picture on the wall was put by Woody.- The picture was puton the wall by Woody.

Topicalization Test: simply move the item in question to the front of the sentence, omitting it in its original position.

The picture on the wall Woody admired. - * The picture Woody andmired on the wall.

Whiz Test (paraphraze test): if you can insert the words which is/was or that is/was between the noun head and the PP, the construction is probably of the head+postmodifier type.

Woody admired the picture which was on the wall.

*Woody put the picture which was on the wall.

The tests demonstrate aspects of the process of grammatical reasoning – the use of formal tests, the need for several tests, the consideration of multiple hypotheses, and the role of grammaticality judgements.

As in premodifiers, they can be rather complex: the process of embedding:

the book in the drawer of the desk in the office of the leader of the rebellion against the opposition of readres of tales of adverntures on far planets of the galaxy

The verb-phrase.

The VP is a definite kind of the subordinate phrase with the verb as the head. The verb is considered to be the semantic and structural centre not only of the VP but of the whole sentence as the verb plays an important role in making up primary predication that serves the basis for the sentence. VPs are more complex than NPs as there are a lot of ways in which verbs may be combined in actual usage. Valent properties of different verbs and their semantics make it possible to divide all the verbs into several groups depending on the nature of their complements.

Classification of verb-phrases.

Functional formula of VP:

(Auxiliary*) + Head + (Object(s)/Complement) + (Modifier*)

Head

Auxiliary(ies) + Head

Head + Object(s)/Complement

Head + Modifier(s)

Combinations of the above

Head (represented by main verb/simple predicate): Hector [walks].

Auxiliary(ies) + Head: have, be, do, modal auxiliaries (will, would, can, could, shall, should, may, might):

One of the handy tests for VPs id the DO-so Test: to substitute do so for the VP:

The zombies [departed] from Hector's house. (Head alone) – The Zobbies did so.

Hector[is acting strangely]. (be + Head Verb) – Hector is doing so.

Head + Object(s)/Complement

Object suggests the goal or purpose of the verb head

Complement – a phrase that obligatory follows and "completes" certain types of verbs.

Object(s)/Complement of verbs:

Direct Object The Vikings [demanded [tribute NP]. A direct object is taken only by transitive verbs. One simple test is an intransitive verb can potentially end a sentence: We walked.

Indirect Object Waldo [gave[ his sister NP] a dictionary. The indirect object construction typically calls for a direct object also. Verbs that enter into such constructions are called bitransitive or ditransitive.

Subject Complement Freud [was [a prude NP].

Freud [was [prudish AP].

Object Complement I [consider Jung [a quack NP]/[unreliable AP]. The object complement construction requires a direct object preceding the complement.

Complememnt Clause I [think [that Freud was a prude S].

Head + Modifier(s) Modifier – a secondary element of a phrse which qualifies its head but doesn't determine the grammatical category of the phrase.

Adverb Phrase We [left (very) early].

Prepositional Phrase We [stayed in Helsinki].

Adverbial Clause We [left [after it started to snow S].

Noun Phrase We [walked a great deal].

VPs can be classified according to the nature of their post-adjuncts – verb post adjuncts may be nominal (to see a house) and adverbial (to behave well). Consequently, we distinguish nominal, adverbial and mixed complementation.

Nominal complementation takes place when one or more nominal complements (nouns or pronouns) are obligatory for the realization of potential valency of the verb: to give smth. to smb., to phone smb., to hear smth.(smb.), etc.

Adverbial complementation occurs when the verb takes one or more adverbial elements obligatory for the realization of its potential valency: He behaved well, I live …in Kyiv (here).

Mixed complementation – both nominal and adverbial elements are obligatory: He put his hat on he table (nominal-adverbial).

According to the structure VPs may be basic or simple (to take a book) – all elements are obligatory; expanded (to read and translate the text, to read books and newspapers) and extended (to read an English book).

The prepositional phrase (PP)

Functional formula: Head + Object: the formal version of the PP is equally simple: Preposition + Noun Phrase:

on the waterfront; of human bondage; with malice toward none; beyond the blue horizon; from the halls of Montezuma.

PPs apper in many structures – within noun phrases, verb phrases, and adjective phrases.

Adjective Phrase (AP):

(Intensifier) + Head + (Complement)

good

very good

good for you

very good for you

The intensifier function can be played by formal intesifiers and by degree adverbs.

Typical Intensifiers and Degree Adverbs

Very Quite Rather Too More Most only

Somewhat Reasonably Particularly Extremely Terrifically Unbelievably extraordinarily

Only some adjectives take complements – particularly those that semantically refer to mental or emotional states: aware, afraid, sorry, disappointed, hopeful, sad. Complements of adj. are of 3 formal types: prepositional phrases: unaware of any wrongdoing;

noun clauses (clauses beginning with conjunction that): unaware that everyone had confessed;

infinitive verbal phrases: afraid to make any move.

Adverb Phrase (DP):

(Intensifier) + Head

Quickly

Very quickly

3. Predicative word-groups.

Predicative word combinations are distinguished on the basis of secondary predication. Like sentences, predicative word-groups are binary in their structure but actually differ essentially in their organization. The sentence is an independent communicative unit based on primary predication while the predicative word-group is a dependent syntactic unit that makes up a part of the sentence. The predicative word-group consists of a nominal element (noun, pronoun) and a non-finite form of the verb: N + Vnon-fin. The other name for these structures is verbal phrases. There are Gerundial, Infinitive and Participial word-groups (complexes) in the English language: his reading, for me to know, the boy running, etc.)