12.2 Прочитай, переведи и озаглавь текст:

All the components of the circuit must be fabricated in a crystal of silicon or on the surface of the crystal. Silicon is far from being ideal material for these functions and only modest values of resistance and capacitance can be achieved. Practical microelectronic inductors can­not be formed at all. On the other hand, silicon is a material without equal for the fabrication of transistors, and the abundance of these active components in microelectronic devices more than compensates for the shortcomings of the passive elements.

12.3 Прочитай, переведи текст MATERIALS FOR MULTILAYER INTERCONNECTIONS AND THEIR REQUIREMENTS и заполни пропуски следующими словами: imposed; conventional; Refractor; replacement/compliment; interconnections; aluminium; encountered; integrity; polysilicon; encountered; considerations; metallization; electromigration; interconnects; compatibility.

As device dimensions are becoming increasingly smaller se­vere requirements are being _ on the electrode material. The basic demand is conductivity because it can substantially improve the resistances and delay times of the electrical _ lines used for VLIC structures.

Historically, metals like _ and gold have been used in bipolar and MOS IC’s. With the advent of silicon-gate MOS technol­ogy, _ has been extensively used to form gate electrodes and interconnections. _ metals such as tungsten (W), molybde­num (Mo), titanium (Ti), and tantalum (Та) and their silicides are re­ceiving increased attention as a _ of polysilicon.

Silicides of W, Mo and Та have reasonably good _ with the 1C fabrication technology. They have fairly high conduc­tivity; they can withstand all of the chemicals normally _ during the fabrication process.

The following are the general requirements for a material for _ and contacts: high electrical conductance, low ohmic contact resistance, _, stable contacts (with silicon and final _), corrosion and oxidation resistance, high tem­perature stability, strong adhesion characteristics.

One of the primary _ is to obtain a material with high electrical conductivity and low ohmic contact resistance. It should also have good electromigration resistance and be stable when in contact with silicon and/or oxide and the final metallization.

These parameters must be maintained throughout the high tem­peratures _ during processing; i.e., to maintain their metal­lurgical _. This requires that the melting point of the materials used be much higher than _ process temperatures.

12.4 Прочитай и письменно переведи текст major steps in the growth of computer technology:

The first transistor developed was the junction transistor. Nearly all transistors today are classed as junction transistors.

Throughout the years there were developed new types of junction transistors that performed better and were easier to construct. When first introduced, the junction transistor was not called that; it was the “cat’s whisker” used in the first radio receivers in the 1920s. Shockley and his crew resurrected (возродить) it, a mere imposing name sounded much more scientific. The junction transistor of 1948 was further modernized in 1951, with the development of the “grown” transistor. The technolo­gy for manufacturing transistors steadily improved until, in 1959, the first integrated circuit was produced - the first circuit-on-a-chip.

The integrated circuit constituted another major step in the growth of computer technology. Until 1959, the fundamental logical compo­nents of digital computers were the individual electrical switches, first in the form of relays, then vacuum tubes, then transistors.

In the vacuum tubes and relay stages, additional discrete compo­nents such as resistors, inductors and capacitors were required in or­der to make the whole system work. These components were about the same size as packaged transistors. Integrated circuit technology per­mitted the elimination of some of these components and “integration” of most of the others on the same chip of semiconductor that contains the transistor. Thus the basic logic element — the switch, or “flip-flop”, which required two separate transistors and some resistors and capaci­tors in the early 1950s, could be packaged into a single small unit in 1960. That unit was half the size of a pea.

The chip was a crucial (важный) development in the accelerating pace of computer technology. With integrated circuit technology, it be­came possible to jam (зд. размещать) more and more elements into a single chip. Entire assemblies of parts could be manufactured in the same time that it previously took to make a single part. Clearly, the cost of pro­viding a particular computing function decreased proportionally. As the number of components on an integrated circuit grew from a few to hun­dreds, then thousands, the term for the chip changed to microcircuit.

12.5 Прочитай текст MADE IN SPACE, переведи и расположи абзацы в правильной последовательности:

1. At the same time, test runs of the installations of the next gen­eration developed for the small-scale industrial production in space have started. One such installation, Korund, was successfully test­ed on board the Salyut station. It had been designed to grow mono­crystalline semiconductors possessing unique properties.

2. In order to launch full-scale industrial production of mono­crystalline semiconductors, bioactive preparations and other sub­stances it is not enough just to commission new-generation tech­nology installations. Special space vehicles will also be needed. Re­search has shown that the acceleration rate on board these vehicles must be reduced to the minimum. Power plants of the capacity of dozens of kw, and later, of hundreds of kw are needed.

3. There is no gravitation convection, i.e. movements of gases or liquids caused by difference of temperature in space. Manufactur­ers of semiconductors know only too well that convection is to blame for the various faults in semiconductors. The technical specialists started their experiments aimed at proving the advantages of the zero-g state for the production of certain materials. In the Soviet Union all orbital stations from Salyut 5 onwards were used for that purpose, as well as automatic space probes and high-altitude rock­ets. Since 1976, over 600 technological experiments have been staged in the Soviet Union on board its manned and unmanned space ve­hicles. An impressive number of similar experiments have also been carried out by scientists in other countries.

4. In recent years active research has been going on in one of the fields of space industrialization — space material study and production of new materials of better quality on board the spacecraft, ranging from semiconductors for microelectronics to unique and more efficient med­icines for the treatment of quite a number of diseases (болезнь).

5. Conditions on board a space vehicle orbiting the earth drasti­cally differ from those on its surface. However, all of these condi­tions can be simulated on Earth, except for one - prolonged weight­lessness.

6. Numerous experiments carried out at the Soviet orbital stations have paved the way to the development of methods and means of industrial production in space.

7. What can weightlessness be used for? Many well-known phys­ical processes proceed differently due to absence of weight. In case of melts of metals, glasses, or semiconductors, they can be cooled down to the solidification point even in space and then brought back to Earth. Such materials will possess quite unusual properties.

8. The experiments proved that scientists were right. Many of the properties of the materials obtained in the zero-g conditions were much better pronounced as compared with those of the specimens produced on Earth.

12.6 Прочитай текст PHOTORESISTS, переведи и заполни пропуски следующими словами: grease; contaminants; adhesion; intimate; treat­ment; adherence; flam; images.

Photoresists are high-sensitive materials used to generate etched patterns in substrates. The quality of the etched _ depends upon the success of every step in the process, and the image _ may be due to resist or nonresist imperfections, or to conditions which un­derline resist performance. Some fundamental factors influencing resist performance include _ coating thickness, heat _, and resist response to various energy sources. Let us start with adherence.

A strong bond between photoresist and substrate is essential to minimize dimensions changes during development and undercutting or loss of adherence during etching. The _ contact between resist and substrate required for strong _ can be inhibited by surface impurities or resist components. Zones of weakness can be created by surface _ such as dust, oil, absorbed gases (par­ticularly absorbed water), dopant ions, or monolayers of previous resist coatings. Removal of obvious visible impurities such as _, fingerprints, or dust can give an apparently clean surface, but con­tamination is often insidious (опасный) because it is invisible. Weakly adsorbed layers of tobacco smoke, water vapor, vacuum pump va­pors, or nonstripped resist components maybe present, even though difficult to detect. Condensing one’s breath on the surface or placing the wafers on a cold plate can sometimes reveal an adsorbed pattern on unetched wafers after resist stripping.