16.7 Определи верны или нет высказывания:

1. Now plaster slabs are used in the areas in which work should be finished quickly.

2. Plaster slabs are finished with a coat for ceilings.

3. Plaster slabs are nailed to fireproof floors.

4. Slabs are grooved for partitions.

5. Iron rods are installed in slabs to reduce the work strength.

6. A keyed surface of slabs requires finishing.

7. A finished surface may be painted before making the joints.

8. Partitions can also be formed with metal joints.

16.8 Прочитай и письменно переведи текст castles in the sky: how new york city's colossal skyscrapers were constructeDи перескажи понравившуюся часть:

High above the streets of Manhattan, the teams of riveters worked to a set routine. As an enormous crane hoisted each steel beam into place on the growing Empire State Building, a workman called the “heater” warmed each rivet in a portable furnace until it glowed cherry-red, removed it with tongs and tossed it to a “catcher”, perched precariously on the very edge of nothing. Usually he caught it in his “catching can”, but sometimes he missed. Using tongs, the catcher knocked off the cinders and lodged the rivet in the prepared hole. Another workmate held it firmly with the aid of a heavy steel bar, while a third smashed the rivet into place with a compressed air hammer.

It took 60 000 tons of steel to build the Empire State. The beams and girders were cast in Pittsburgh, and within a day or two of being made, each numbered piece had been transported to Manhattan, hoisted into position and riveted into place. There was little storage space available on site, so elaborate charts and timetables were used to monitor progress and to ensure that deliveries kept precise pace with the erectors’ and riveters’ schedules.

Careful organisation builds a giant.

The charts listed every lorry due to arrive, what it would carry, who would be responsible for it and where it ought to go. Each beam was hoisted by crane to the appropriate floor, then transported to wherever it was required on a miniature railway system. This methodical approach worked exceptionally well and on occasions the building rose by more than a storey in a single day.

The Empire State 102 storeys were finished in record time. It took just six months to complete the 381 m building instead of the antici pated 18 months, feat that set new standards of efficiency for the construction industry. But it was 1931, in the early years of the Great Depression, and much of the space remained unlet. The building was dubbed “The Empire State Building”. It had cost $24 million to construct, which was cheap at the time, but for the first few years a major source of income used by the developer to pay property taxes was ticket sales for the observatories on the 86th and 102nd floors. From the top on a clear day, it is possible to see 80 km away.

A skyscraper made of steel.

The steel skeleton of the riveted structure means that it is immensely strong — the building sways less than 6 mm on the 85th floor in a strong wind. In July 1945 an off-course US Air Force bomber, travelling at a speed of 400 km/h in fog and rain, crashed into the 78th and 79th floors. The three man crew and 11 people in the building were killed, but the structure suffered no permanent damage. Survivors recall that the building simply rocked a couple of times.

Manhattan’s distinctive skyline started to take shape when steel began to be used for tall buildings. Earlier buildings had been made from a variety of materials, including stone, brick, wood and cast iron. But a masonry building taller than about ten storeys would have required supporting walls so thick at the base that there would be hardly any floor space on the ground floor and, before lifts were invented, building height was limited to the number of steps people were prepared to climb. One of Manhattan’s most striking early skyscrapers, built between 1901 and 1903 was Flatiron building. It owes its unique shape to the narrow triangular site it occupies at the junction of Broadway and 5th Avenue at 23rd Street.

Twenty storeys high, its riveted steel frame is clad in French Renaissance-style stonework.

Taller and taller.

The Flatiron may also have been the first building to create strange aerodynamic effects in the surrounding streets. Even today, Manhattan’s tall buildings create unusual wind currents, causing snowflakes to float upwards. Before long, the Flatiron was dwarfed by other skyscrapers, including the Woolworlh Building, completed in 1913. The architect, Cass Gilbert, chose the Gothic style for the 60-storey tower. The structure itself was made from steel and the exterior completely clad in terracotta. It could house 14000 workers, serviced by 19 lifts and 2800 telephones — an astonishing number for the time.

When the building was finished it won immediate praise from the public — but some architectural purists were aghast, their sensibilities offended by Gilbert’s use of Gothic detail purely for decorative effect, rather than for structural purposes. This was contrary to the modernist stricture that “form should follow function”.

Reader’s Digest: How Was It Done?

MODAL VERBS

К модальным глаголам не добавляются окончания. За ними всегда стоит глагол без to. Модальные глаголы стоят на первом месте в вопросах и к ним добавляется not в отрицаниях. Обычно не изменяются по временам, употребляется только в настоящем и ближайшем будущем.

MUST употребляется только в настоящем и ближайшем будущем для выражения: необходимости, обязанности: You must stop when the traffic light is red. запрета: You mustn’t park here. настоятельной рекомендации: You must behave yourself at school. логического заключения: They must be the boy’s parents.

HAVE (GOT) TO употребляется для выражения вынужденной необходимости: I have to wear a uniform at work.

Вопросы отрицания формируются с помощью do, does или did.

NEEDN’T – нет необходимости что-то делать: The farmer needn’t/doesn’t need to buy any eggs.

DIDN’T NEED TO + infinitive – действие не было совершено, т.к. не было необходимости: They didn’t need to cut any more wood.

NEEDN’T HAVE + V₃ – действие было совершено, но не было необходимости: You needn’t have bought me a gift.

CAN/COULD употребляется для выражения: физической возможности: He can fly an aeroplane. I could ski very well when I was young. просьбы о разрешении: ‘Can I go swimming?’ ‘No, you can’t.’ заказов: Can I get you anything from the supermarket? предложений: ‘What shall we do tonight?’ ‘We can go to the cinema.’ просьб: Can you help me with my French homework please? отрицательных логических заключений: They can’t be strangers. I’m certain I know them. возможностей: ‘John is late.’ ‘He could be stuck in traffic.’

Can – настоящее, could – прошлое, be able to – для всех остальных времен.

WAS/WERE ABLE TO – однократное действие в прошлом: He was able to climb to the top of the mountain.

Could – постоянная физическая возможность в прошлом: He could run very fast when he was young. Could употребляется с глаголами чувственно-визуального восприятия и в отрицаниях.

Can’t употребляется для выражения отрицательного логического заключения: They can’t be at work. She can’t be doing her homework. He can’t have done the exercise properly. The drivers can’t have been driving slowly.

Must употребляется для выражения логического заключения: They must be on holiday. She must be writing a letter. He must have strained his back. The drivers must have been driving too fast.

MAY/MIGHT употребляется для выражения: просьбы разрешения (когда мы плохо знаем собеседника): ‘May I ask you another question?’ ‘Of course.’ Просто просьбы: ‘May I have a pen & some papers, please?’ ‘Here you are.’ разрешения: Passengers may take only one item of hand luggage on board. Или отказа: Students may not wear outdoors shoes on the basketball court. возможности: Might + present inf.: ‘Where’s Aunt Julia?’ ‘She might still be at work.’ Might + perfect inf.: ‘The lights are still on.’ ‘Helen might have forgotten to turn them off.’ (возможно произошло) ‘Why did you run across the road?’ ‘You might have been killed.’ (могло случиться, но не случилось)

Для выражения разрешения: употребляется can и be allowed to чтобы выразить законы или правила: All citizens over the age of 18 can/are allowed to vote. употребляется could и was/were allowed to чтобы выразить разрешение на определенные действия в прошлом: I could/was allowed to go to parties when I was young. разница в употреблении may и be allowed to в вопросах: May I use your phone? (рядовая просьба) Are we allowed to use the office phone? (разрешается ли)

• was/were allowed to но не could употребляются для выражения разрешения на конкретное действие в прошлом: I was allowed to go to John’s party last night.

SHALL употребляется для выражения: предложения помощи: Shall I help you choose Mary’s present? предложения: Shall we go to the market today? просьбы о разрешении или совете: Where shall we go tonight?

Will/Would употребляется для выражения: просьбы: Will you hold the plate for me, please?

Should/Ought to употребляется для выражения: совета: You should/ought to be more careful. критики: You all should/ought to have tried harder.

Present Simple	I’m sure he is Spanish. I’m sure you aren’t a doctor.	He must be Spanish. You can’t be a doctor.
Present Continuous	I’m certain they’re hiding. I’m sure they won’t be leaving tomorrow.	They must be hiding. They can’t be leaving tomorrow.
Perfect	I’m certain she has left. I’m sure she didn’t lie. I’m certain he hadn’t phoned.	She must have left. She can’t have lied. He can’t have phoned.
Perfect Continuous	I’m sure they were waiting. I’m certain she has been crying. I’m certain he hadn’t been trying hard.	They must have been waiting. She must have been crying. He can’t have been trying hard.
Present Simple	Perhaps she is a nurse. It’s possible he will come early.	She might be a nurse. He might come early.
Present Continuous	Perhaps they are having a break. It’s likely we will be moving house soon.	They might be having a break. We might be moving house soon.
Perfect	Perhaps he left yesterday. It`s possible she has locked the door. It`s likely he had gone out.	He might have left yesterday. She might have locked the door. He might have gone out.
Perfect Continuous	It`s possible they were sleeping. Perhaps it has been raining there.	They might have been sleeping. It might have been raining there.