15.3 Переведи на русский и английский языки:

1. Field tests provide the most reliable relationship between the axial load applied to а (фундамент глубокого заложения) and the resulting axial movement. 2. Indications of (неравномерная осадка) are vertical distortion or cracking of masonry walls, warped interior and exterior openings, sloped floors, and sticking doors and windows. 3. Minor (трещины) are structurally harmful only if long-term moisture leakage through the (трещины) adversely affects building elements. 4. If the foundation embedment into the ground is not sufficient to account for erosion and (размыв) that may occur over the life of the building, the building is vulnerable to collapse under design flood and wind conditions. 5. A deep foundation is used to transfer a load from a structure through an upper weak (грунтовый слой) to a stronger and deeper (грунто­вый слой). 6. Tall buildings often rest on many small (кессон­ные сваи). 7. А (фундамент на естественном основании) supports the weight (load) from the exterior or foundation walls. 8. In construction sites where settlement is not a problem, (фун­даменты мелкого заложения) provide the most economical foundation systems. 9. The ultimate objective of any (забитая свая) is to carry some kind of load coming from a variety of sources. 10. The two most important design requirements for building structures are the strength and (жесткость).

15.4 Переведи на русский язык:

1. a. The university has been famous since its foundation.

2. The workers are laying the foundation of a new building.

3. This foundation provides money for medical research.

2. a. They usually pile the boxes on the table.

2. There was a neat pile of books in the comer of the room.

3. The pile was driven into the ground.

3. a. The sweater will shrink when washed.

2. A bad harvest caused the farmer’s income to shrink.

3. These processes cause the concrete to shrink slightly.

4. a. The two sides have at last reached a settlement.

2. Settlement is the common cause of foundation problems.

3. There are some empty lands awaiting settlement.

5. a. This type of panels does not transfer vertical loads.

b. She asked for a transfer to the Moscow office.

c. The load transfer takes place from the slabs to the beams.

15.5 Прочитай, письменно переведи и ответь на вопросы:

1. What is a foundation?

2. What types of foundations do you know?

3. What is a shallow foundation?

4. What types of shallow foundations do you know?

5. What is a deep foundation used for?

6. What types of deep foundations do you know?

7. Who designs foundations?

8. What aspects should be taken into account when designing a foundation?

A foundation is a structure that transfers loads to the earth. Foundations are generally broken into two categories: shallow foundations and deep foundations.

A shallow foundation is usually embedded a meter or so into soil. One common type is the spread footing which consists of pads of concrete or other materials which extend below the frost line and transfer the weight from walls and columns to the soil or bedrock. Another common type is the slab-on-grade foundation where the weight of the building is transferred to the soil through a concrete slab placed at the surface.

A deep foundation is used to transfer a load from a structure through an upper weak layer of soil to a stronger deeper layer of soil.

There are different types of deep foundations including helical piles, impact driven piles, caissons, piers, and earth stabilized columns. The naming conventions for different types of foundations vary among different engineers. Historically, piles were wood, later steel, reinforced concrete, and pre-tensioned concrete.

Foundations are designed to have an adequate load capacity with limited settlement by a geotechnical engineer, and the foundation itself is designed structurally by a structural engineer.

The primary design concerns are settlement and bearing Shallow foundations of a capacity. When considering house versus the deep settlement, total settlement and foundations of a skyscraper differential settlement are normally considered. Differential settlement is when one part of a foundation settles more than another part. This can cause problems to the structure the foundation is supporting. It is necessary that a foundation is not loaded beyond its bearing capacity or the foundation will fail.

Other design considerations include scour and frost heave. Scour is when flowing water removes supporting soil from around a foundation (like a pier supporting a bridge over a river). Frost heave occurs when water in the ground freezes to form ice lenses.

Changes in soil moisture can cause expansive clay to swell and shrink. This swelling can vary across the footing due to seasonal changes or the effects of vegetation removing moisture. The variation in swell can cause the soil to distort, cracking the structure over it. This is a particular problem for house footings in semi-arid climates such as South Australia, Southwestern US, Turkey, Israel, Iran and South Africa where wet winters are followed by hot dry summers. Raft slabs with inherent stiffness have been developed in Australia with capabilities to resist this movement. When structures are built in areas of permafrost, special consideration must be given to the thermal effect the structure will have on the permafrost. Generally, the structure is designed in a way that tries to prevent the permafrost from melting.