14.3 Прочитай и письменно переведи, используя:

1. area — участок, район; площадь

2. residential (housing) area — жилой район

3. bearing area — площадь опоры, несущая поверхность

4. a cross-section(al) area — площадь поперечного сечения

5. instrument — инструмент; прибор

6. surveying instrument — геодезический инструмент

7. measuring instrument — измерительный инструмент

8. levelling instrument — нивелир, ватерпас

9. instrumentation — контрольно-измерительные приборы

1. Resistance is provided by transferring the thrust force to the soil through the larger bearing area of the block such that the resultant pressure against the soil does not exceed the horizontal bearing strength of the soil. 2. It is a nice starter home by a park, the least expensive house in an expensive area, and really fits all of our requirements. 3. When a plane cuts through an object, an area is projected onto the plane. Any plane can be used to cut through the surface, but when that plane is perpendicular to an axis of symmetry, it projection is called a cross-sectional area. 4. Safe driving in residential areas is important. 5. The garden is twelve square metres in area. 6. The area is also fast developing as a recreational and retirement housing area with a large number of foreigners now living in the area plus housing developments that have been implemented by local entrepreneurs. 7. The newest requirements in instrumentation and test equipment demand even higher speeds and new levels of precision. 8. This company manufactures, markets, imports and exports a wide range of measuring instruments of world-renowned brands.9. Surveying instruments are used for the accurate measurement of features, orientation and absolute positioning of large scale objects in engineering, construction, mapping, industry, defense and other applications. 10. The use of levelling instruments is essential to various parts of the construction process, ranging from investigating the original site to locating the building on the site, and establishing grades and elevations of various parts of the structure. 11. Instruments used in surveying operations measure vertical and horizontal angles, and distance.

14.4 Подготовь и сделай сообщения по следующим темам:

1. Film technology and semiconductor technology.

2. Silicon for microelectronics.

3. Oxidation and its function.

4. The techniques for the deposition of thin films.

14.5 Прочитай и письменно переведи текст surveying techniques:

Surveying or land surveying is the technique and science of determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional space position of points and the distances and angles between them. These points are usually on the surface of the Earth, and are often used to establish land maps and boundaries for ownership or governmental purposes. In order to accomplish their objective, surveyors use elements of geometry, engineering, trigonometry, mathematics, physics, and law.

Furthermore, a particular type of surveying known as land surveying is the detailed study or inspection by gathering information through observations, measurements in the field, questionnaires, or research of legal instruments, and data analysis in the support of planning, designing, and establishing of property boundaries.

It involves the re-establishment of cadastral surveys and land boundaries based on documents of record and historical evidence, as well as certifying surveys of subdivision plats/maps, registered land surveys, judicial surveys, and space delineation. Land surveying can include associated services, such as mapping and related data accumulation, construction layout surveys, precision measurements of length, angle, elevation, area, and volume, as well as horizontal and vertical control surveys, and the analysis and utilization of land survey data.

Surveying has been an essential element in the development of the human environment since the beginning of recorded history (5000 years ago) and it is a requirement in the planning and execution of nearly every form of construction. Its most familiar modern uses are in the fields of transport, building and construction, communications, mapping, and the definition of legal boundaries for land ownership.

Historically, distances were measured using a variety of means, such as chains with links of a known length, for instance a Gunter’s chain or measuring tapes made of steel. In order to measure horizontal distances, these chains or tapes would be pulled according to temperature to reduce sagging and slack. Additionally, attempts to hold the measuring instrument level would be made. In instances of measuring up a slope, the surveyor might have to “break” the measurement — that is, raise the rear part of the tape up ward, plumb from where the last measurement ended.

Horizontal angles were measured using a compass which would provide a magnetic bearing from which deflections could be measured. This type of instrument was later improved with more carefully scribed discs providing better angular resolution, as well as through mounting telescopes with reticles for more precise sighting atop the disc. Additionally, levels and calibrated circles allowing measurement of vertical angles were added.

The simplest method for measuring height is with an altimeter — basically a barometer — using air pressure as an indication of height, but surveying requires greater precision. A variety of means, such as precise levels, have been developed to do this. Levels are calibrated to provide a precise plane from which differentials in height between the instrument and the point in question can be measured, typically through the use of a vertical measuring rod.

With the triangulation method, one first needs to know the horizontal distance to the object. The height of an object can be determined by measuring the angle between the horizontal plane and the line through that point at a known distance and the top of the object. In order to determine the height of a mountain, one should do this from the sea level, but here the distances can be too great and the mountain may not be visible. So it is done in steps, first determining the position of one point, then moving to that point and doing a relative measurement, and so on until the mountain top is reached.