12.2 Составь выражение, логичные по смыслу:

A technique	The advance		can’t be achieved.		checks the beam strain.
The goal	The building sway		is for three years.		was provided for.
The term	Serviceability		shows strange behaviour.		was developed.
A structural engineer	The structure		was taken into account.		was made in construction.

12.3 Замени выделеные слова на:

2. carry out

3. retain

4. emerge

5. collapse

6. techniques

7. accurate

8. behave

9. utilize

10. sway

11. services

1. A great amount of effort is spent on the correct application of formulas. 2. Research in the field progressed the general understanding of how steel beams act under single and combined loads. 3. They regularly perform urgent repairs of construction equipment at this plant. 4. This bridge can fall down under the weight of the train. 5. Design professionals and builders should work in an integrated process in order to specify and make use of materials in a manner that will reduce or eliminate waste. 6. Some cracks in beams can appear during construction. 7. During recent years an interesting change has been gradually brought about in the various methods of building construction employed in Russia. 8. The pipes and cables which penetrate the floor/ceiling system must incorporate an approved fire stopping system or must be enclosed in fire resisting shafts. 9. What is the legal temperature a building must keep in the winter in this area? 10. They developed some methods for testing structures permitted to move to and fro.

12.4 Прочитай и письменно переведи текст engineering for buildings:

Structural engineering is a field of engineering dealing with the analysis and design of structures that support or resist loads. Structural engineering is usually considered a specialty within civil engineering, but it can also be studied in its own right.

Structural engineers are most commonly involved in the design of buildings and large nonbuilding structures but they can also be involved in the design of machineiy, medical equipment, vehicles or any item where structural integrity affects function or safety of the item. Structural engineers must ensure their designs satisfy given design criteria, predicated on safety (e.g. structures must not collapse without due warning) or serviceability and performance (e.g. building sway must not cause discomfort to the occupants).

Structural engineering theory is based upon physical laws and empirical knowledge of the structural performance of different landscapes and materials. Structural engineering design utilises a relatively small number of basic structural elements to build up structural systems that can be very complex. Structural engineers are responsible for making creative and efficient use of funds, structural elements and materials to achieve these goals.

Structural engineering has existed since humans first started to construct their own structures. It dates back to at least 2700 BC when the step pyramid for Pharaoh Djoser was built by Imhotep, the first engineer in history known by name. Pyramids were the most common major structures built by ancient civilizations because the structural form of a pyramid is inherently stable and can be almost infinitely scaled (as opposed to most other structural forms which cannot be linearly increased in size in proportion to increased loads).

Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction were carried out by artisans, such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. No theory of structures existed, and the understanding of how structures stood up was extremely limited and based almost entirely on empirical evidence of “what had worked before”. Knowledge was retained by guilds and seldom supplanted by advances. Structures were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental.

No record exists of the first calculations of the strength of structural members or the behaviour of structural material, but the profession of a structural engineer only really took shape with the industrial revolution and the re-invention of concrete. The physical sciences underlying structural engineering began to be understood in the Renaissance and have been developing ever since.

Structural engineering became a more defined profession with the Burj Khalifa in Dubai, the emergence of the architecture world's tallest building. profession as distinct from the engineering profession during the industrial revolution in the late 19th century. Until then, the architect and the structural engineer were often one and the same — the master builder. Only with the understanding of structural theories that emerged during the 19th and 20th centuries the professional structural engineer came into existence.

The role of a structural engineer today involves a significant understanding of both static and dynamic loading, and the structures that are available to resist them. The complexity of modem structures often requires a great deal of creativity from the engineer in order to ensure the structures support and resist the loads they are subjected to. A structural engineer will typically have a four or five year undergraduate degree followed by a minimum of three years of professional practice before being considered fully qualified.

Structural engineers are licensed or accredited by different learned societies and regulatory bodies around the world (for example, the Institution of Structural Engineers in the UK).

12.5 Определи верны ли данные высказывания или нет:

1. Structural engineering can only be studied on its own right.

2. Structural engineers are involved in the design of structures.

3. Structural engineering design uses a large number of basic structural elements.

4. Pyramids are regarded as the most common major structures because their forms are stable and scaled.

5. The theory of structures existed and was widely used throughout ancient and medieval history.

6. The profession of a structural engineer took shape in the Renaissance.

7. The architect and the structural engineer were different professions before the industrial revolution.

8. A structural engineer is considered to be fully qualified after completing a three-year course of study at college or university.