7.8 Ответь на вопросы:

1. What components was Roman concrete made from?

2. Why was concrete regarded as a revolutionary material?

3. What is the difference between Roman concrete and modern structural concrete?

4. Why have many Roman structures survived to the present day?

5. What technique did the Romans use in their structures?

6. When was the secret of Roman concrete lost?

7. Who pioneered the re-use of concrete?

8. What aggregates are used in modem concrete?

7.9 Прочитай и письменно переведи текст from the history of brickmaking:

Bricks were first used for building in the Middle East. More than 6,000 years ago the Sumerian people living in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers discovered that the muddy clay deposited by the two rivers was ideal for building. The clay was mixed with water and straw and pressed into rectangular moulds. The bricks were then turned out of the moulds and left to dry in the sun. Sun-dried bricks such as these, known as abode after the clay from which they are made, are still used for building in warm, dry regions throughout Africa and South America. Adobe is cheap and can last for centuries.

The next development in the history of brickmaking came around 4,000 years ago when the brick kiln was invented in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates. Brickmakers found that if bricks were fired after they had been dried in the sun, they were harder and better able to withstand damp. The earliest type of kiln was a beehiveshaped mound of dried bricks with arches at the bottom in which the fires could be lit. Later kilns were permanent buildings in which the bricks were slowly heated up and allowed to cool over a period of four days.

From the Middle East, the ancient craft of brickmaking spread v/estward to Egypt and the Mediterranean and eastward to India and China. Roman builders brought bricks to Britain in the 1st century AD, but when the Roman Empire fell in the 5th century, the art of brickmaking was lost for some 600 years. It was revived by the Italians in the 11th century and spread quickly throughout northern Europe. By the mid-17th century brick-built walls were replacing the old timber frameworks in buildings.

7.10 Заполни таблицу периодов развития кирпичной промышленности:

Sun-dried bricks
The invention of a brick kiln
The spread of the ancient craft of brickmaking
The loss of brickmaking art

The revival of brickmaking art
The replacement of timber framework for brick-built walls

7.11 Прочитай, переведи текст windy city wonder и расположи абзацы в правильной последовательности:

1. Non-linear analysis predicted the short and long term displacement of Chicago’s Trump Tower, which included the effects of creep and shrinkage. If no horizontal correction had been made during construction, the roof could have moved 300 mm out of line due to the combined effects of gravity, creep and shrinkage.

2. Any massive building needs massive foundations. The building sits on 30 m long piles founded on bedrock. A permanent steel liner, which seals the excavation, cuts through 18 m of stiff clay and 12 m of boulders and fractured rock to form a socket in solid rock. On completion the Tramp Tower will hold the record for the world’s highest residential building, but only for a year. After that it will be dwarfed by the 610 m, 150 storey Chicago Spire.

3. Clever engineering has meant that North America’s tallest residential building will be solid as a rock despite its windy location.

4. A 3 m deep piled raft was poured continuously over a period of 22 hours. The concrete was poured using conveyor belts so that very few vibrators were needed; the temperature had to be carefully controlled as the concrete cured due to the raft thickness. If the differential temperature across the depth was too large, stresses would set up and lead to micro cracking.

5. Nestled among the forest of skyscrapers on the Chicago skyline, the 92 storey Trump Tower is currently notching its way up to become the city’s second tallest building. The 415 m tower will be completed in January 2009. The stepped concrete building has been designed to reflect the height of nearby buildings by architect and engineer for the project Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (SOM). The first step aligns with the 130 m high Wrigley Building, the second the 179 m high Marina City Towers, and the third the 212 m high IBM Plaza, known as 330 North Wabash.

Finite element analysis.

6. The outrigger beams take up a storey height and are heavily reinforced. In some areas conventional bars are even replaced by an equivalent area of steel plate to ease congestion. Contractor Bovis Lend Lease is using self compacting concrete to penetrate densely reinforced areas. Surprisingly, the tall building does not require dampers to limit its movement. This is because of the stabilising effect of the heavy concrete core and columns and the setbacks. The asymmetric setbacks change the cross section of the building, so changing the frequency of wind passing it. This means that vortices, which would cause the building to move more, cannot build up.

7. As important as these steps — also known as setbacks — are architecturally, they also have an important engineering role as they each contain an outrigger stability system. These 5.3 m deep by 1.7 m wide concrete monoliths transfer lateral loads between the perimeter columns and the central core. SOM associate partner Robert Sinn explains that the lateral shear resistance of the core and overturning resistance of the perimeter structure are mobilised by linking them at discrete levels using outrigger trusses or beams. He adds that this means just a few heavier vertical elements are needed on the perimeter to keep the building stable, freeing up the facade.

Foundations.

8. Engineers had to deal with the inherent problem of the uneven load distribution of a massive, asymmetrical building and its tendency to move sideways under its own weight. The solution was to carry out a time-based finite element analysis on the structure so that movements could be predicted and compensated for during construction. Bovis Lend Lease used these results to make millimetre adjustments at every storey to bring the building back to plumb.

New Civil Engineer International, October, 2007

THE NOUNS

Множественное число существительных, кроме тех, основа которых оканчивается на -ch, -s, -ss, -sh, -x, a также существительных, имеющих окончание -о, об­разуется путем прибавления к основе окончания -s: a boy — boys, a book — books, a pen — pens, a girl — girls.

Множественное число существительных, основа ко­торых оканчивается на -ch, -s, -ss, -sh, -x, а также имеющих окончание -о, образуется путем прибавле­ния окончания -es:

a bench скамейка — benches, a bus автобус — buses, a glass стакан — glasses, a box коробка — boxes, a potato картошка — potatoes.

Существительные, оканчивающиеся на -у (после согласной) во множественном числе имеют окончание -ies:

a baby младенец — babies, a fly муха — flies, a lady леди— ladies.

Существительные, оканчивающиеся на -у (после глас­ной) во множественном числе имеют окончание -s: a boy — boys a toy — toys

Если слово оканчивается на f (-fe), то во множе­ственном числе f меняется на v и добавляется -(es): a life жизнь — lives, a knife нож — knives, a shelf полка — shelves, a wife жена — wives (исключение: roof крыша — roofs).

Как читаются окончания существительных во множественном числе?

-s читается как [s] после глухих согласных: books, cats -s читается как [z] после звонких согласных и глас­ных: pens, boys;

-es читается как [iz] после s, ss, sh, ch, x, z: boxes, у после согласных переходит в i+es: city — cities, lady — ladies.

Ряд существительных образует множественное чис­ло не по общим правилам:

а) изменяется корневая гласная: a man мужчина — теп мужчины, a woman женщина — women женщины, a foot нога — feet ноги, a tooth зуб — teeth зубы, a goose гусь — geese гуси, a mouse мышь — mice мыши;

б) добавляется окончание -en: an ох бык — oxen быки, a child ребенок — children дети;

в) заимствуются формы единственного и множествен­ного числа из латинского и греческого языков:

a formula — formulae (formulas), a crisis — crises, a criterion — criteria, an index —indices, a bacterium — bacteria.

В английском языке есть существительные, кото­рые имеют одну (общую) форму для единственного и множественного числа:

a deer олень — deer олени, a sheep овца — sheep овцы, a fish рыба — fish рыбы, a swine свинья — swine свиньи.

Некоторые существительные могут употребляться в форме либо только единственного, либо множествен­ного числа.

Употребляются только в единственном числе:

money — деньги, sugar — сахар, hair — волосы, business — дело, information — информация, сведения fruit — фрукты progress — прогресс, успехи news — новость, новости, peace — мир love — любовь knowledge — знание, знания advice — советы furniture — мебель luggage — багаж

Только во множественном числе употребляются слова:

clothes — одежда, goods — товары, riches — богатства, thanks — благодарности, manners — манеры, money — деньги

Только во множественном числе употребляются названия предметов, состоящих из двух и более частей:

trousers — брюки glasses — очки scissors — ножницы shorts — шорты pliers — плоскогубцы.