LECTURE 1THE SUBJECT OFTHEORETICAL PHONETICS
Brainstorming questions
1 What does phonetics study?
2 Is it a new science?
3 What sciences does phonetics connected with?
4 Is it a linguistic or non- linguistic science?
5 What type of linguistic and non-linguistic sciences do you know?
6 How many branches and aspects of phonetics do you know?
Questions to be discussed:
1 Phonetics as a science, its aims and tasks 2 Definition of phonetics 3 Connection of phonetics with other linguistic and non- linguistic sciences 4 Methods of investigation used in different branches phonetics 5 Practical and theoretical importance of phonetics.
Key words: phonetics, speech sounds, linguistic and non- linguistic sciences, methods of investigation.
-
Phonetics studies
Speech sounds,its aspects and functions |
|
Speech sounds,its aspects and functions |
Accentual structure of the words
|
|
Intonational structure of the sentences |
Phonetics is connected with: |
Linguistic sciences: a) grammar b) stylistics c) lexicology |
|
Non-linguistic sciences: a)biology b) logic c)anatomy d)physiology e)physics |
Phonetics is not a new science. It was known to the ancient Greeks and to the ancient Hindus. In India more than 2000 years ago there flourished a science of phonetics more advanced than any that has since been known until very recent times. The results, embodied in a series of Sanskrit texts, were,first introduced to the West only some 80 years ago. The scientists of that time were concerned with speech sounds only. It may be said that orthography of all written languages which use alphabets developed in the course of a very detailed phonetic analysis.
Here are some data connected with the history of phonetic development:
1829 laryngoscope was invented.
1852 first observations of the vocal cords were made.
1877 gramophone was invented.
1886 International Phonetic Association (IPA)was founded
Phonetics is not a separate, independent science. It began to develop in Western Europe and Russiaonly in the 19"' century. There has been considerable progress and growth in the 20th century. Within the last half century, especially, new concepts have sprung up, new theories and new methods of investigation have been developed. Phonetics studies the sound matter, its aspects and functions. Not only has the sphere of investigation in phonetics become widened but several new branches of phonetics have also arisen. The most important of these are special and general phonetics. Phonetics, being a branch of linguistics, occupies a peculiar position. It develops according to its own laws. Today the sphere of phonetics is wider and deeper than ever before phonemes and their distribution in words, their mutual adaptation, stress, syllable formation, intonation,relation between oral and written speech and a number of other problems now become object of phonetic investigation. Phonetics, like the other branches of linguistics isclosely connected with a number of linguisticsand non-linguistic sciences, such as grammar, lexicology, stylistics, biology, logic, anatomy, physiology, physics, etc.
LECTURE 4PHONOLOGICAL ASPECT OF SPEECH SOUND
Brainstorming questions
1 What is phonology?
2 What does phonology deal with?
3 What phonological schools do you know?
4 Can you say what is phoneme is?
5 What is an allophone?
Key words: phonology/ phoneme/phonological schools.
Questions for discussion:
Phonology as a science
Phonology schools
Definition of the phoneme
Variants of the phoneme (allophones)
Phonology deals with the range and function of sounds in specific languages, and with the rules that determine the types of phonetic relationship that relate and contrast these linguistic units.
-
D
ifferent
opinions on the nature of the phoneme
“Mentalist” view of the phoneme: theory. (I.A. Baudouin de Courtney)
|
|
The abstractional conception: (Ferdinand de Saussure, L. Hjelmslev)
|
|
The physical view : (D.Jones B.Bloch, T.Trager) Ferdinand de Saussure |
|
Minimal sound units : (S. Trubetzkoy, L.Bloomfield , R. Jakobson)
|
|
Areal, independent distinctive unit: (L.V.Shcherba V.A.Vassilyev) |
-
Definition of the phoneme
The segmental phoneme is the smallest (i. e. further indivisible into smaller consecutive segments) language unit(sound type) that exists in the speech of all the members of a given language community as such sounds which are capable of distinguishing one word from another word of the same language or one grammatical form of a word from another grammatical form of the same word |
-
T
ypes
of phonological schools
-
Moscow
Leningrad
London
American
Prague Linguistic circle
-
R
epresentatives
of phonological schools
Moscow: R.A.Avanessov, A.A.Reformatsky N.F.Yakovlev, V.N.Sidorov and others |
|
Leningrad: L.V.Scherba, L.R.Zinder, M.I.Matusevitch, O.I.Dikushina, V.A.Vassilyev, G.P.Torsuev and others |
|
London:
D.Jones |
|
American: L.Bloomfield, E.Sapir, Ch.F.Hockett, W.F.Twadell |
|
Prague Linguistic circle:
N.S.Trubetskoy, R.Jakobson,
|
Phonology is the study of the sound system of languages. At one extreme, phonology is concerned with anatomy and physiology- the organs of speech and how we learn to use them. At another extreme, phonology shades into socio-linguistic as we consider social attitudes to features of sound such as accent and intonation. And part of the subject is concerned with finding objective standard ways of recording speech, and representing this symbolically.
The physics and physiology of speech.
Man is distinguished from the other primates by having the apparatus to make sound of speech. Language scientists have very detailed understanding of how the human body produces the sounds of speech. Leaving to one side the vast subject of how we choose particular utterances and identify the sounds we need, we can think rather simply of how we use lungs to breathe out air, produce vibrations in the larynx and then use our tongue, teeth and lips to modify the sounds. Mostly we use air that is moving out of our lungs to speak. We may pause while breathing in, or try to use the ingressive air-but this is likely to produce quit speech, which is unclear to our listeners. In languages other than English, speakers may also use non-pulmonic sound, such as clicks or glottal sounds. In the larynx, the vocal folds set up vibrations in the regressive air. The vibrating air passes through further cavities which can modify the sound and finally air articulated by the passive (immobile) articulators-the hard palate, the alveolar ridge and the upper teeth- and active (mobile) articulators. These are pharynx, the velum (or soft palate), the jaw and lower teeth, the lips and above all, the tongue, this so important and so flexible an organ, that language scientists identify different regions of the tongue by name, as these are associated wit particular sounds.
Working outwards these are:
the back- opposite the soft palate
the centre- opposite the meeting point hard and soft palate
the front- opposite the hard palate
the blade- the tapering area facing the ridge of teeth
the tip- the extreme end of the tongue
Speech therapists have a very detailed working knowledge of the physiology of human speech, and of exercises and remedies to overcome difficulties. Some of us encounter in speaking, where these have, physical causes. An understanding of anatomy is also useful to various kinds of expert who train people to use their voices in special or unusual ways.
These would include singing teachers and voice coaches for actors, as well as the even more. Specialized coaches who train actors to produce the speech sounds of hither to unfamiliar varieties of English or other languages.
Phonology as a science
The sounds of a language are organized into a system of contrasts, which are analyzed in terms of phonological units (phonemes, distinctive features) Phonology deals with the range and function of sounds in specific languages, and with the rules that determine the types of phonetic relationship that relate and contrast these linguistic units.
Phoneme theory
In human language, a phoneme is the theoretical representation of a sound. It is a sound of language represented (or imagined) without reference to its position in a word or a phrase. A phoneme, therefore, is the conception of a sound in the most neutral form possible and distinguishes between different words or morphemes. Changing an element of a word from one phoneme another produces either a different word or obvious nonsense.
The phoneme can be defined as “ the smallest meaningful physiological unit ofsound”.
The phoneme has mental, physiological, and physical substance: our brain process the sounds; the sounds are produced by the human speech organs; and the sounds are physical entities that can be recorded and measured. For an example of phonemes, consider the English words pat and sat, which appear to differ only in their initial consonants. This difference, known as contractiveness or opposition, is sufficient to distinguish these words, and therefore the p and s sounds are said to be different phonemes in English. A pair of words that are identical except for such a sound are known as a minimal pair; this is the most frequent demonstration that two sounds are separate phonemes.
A phoneme could be thought of as a family related phones, called allophones, that the speakers of a language think of, and hear or see, as being categorically the same and differing only in the phonetic environment in which they occur. In sign languages, the basic movements were formerly called cheremes (or cheiremes), but usage changed to phoneme when it was recognized that the mental abstractions involved are essentially the same as in oral languages. A phonemically “perfect” alphabet is one that has a single symbol for each phoneme.
There are different opinions on the nature of the phoneme and its definitions.
1 I.A. Baudouin de Courtney (1845-1929) defined the phoneme as a physical image of a sound. He originated the so called “mentalist” view of the phoneme theory.
2 The abstractional conception of the phoneme was originated by Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1930), the famous Swiss linguist and the Danish linguist L. Hjelmslev (1889-1965). The “abstract” view regards the phoneme independent of the phonetic properties.
3 S. Trubetzkoy (1890-1938), L.Bloomfield (1887-1949), R. Jakobson (1896-1982) viewed the phoneme as the minimal sound units by which meanings may be differentiated. They stated that the features of the phoneme involved in the differentiation of words are called distinctive. They can be found in contrastive sets.
4.The physical view on the phone was originated by D.Jones (1881-1967). He defined the phoneme as a “family” of sounds. The members of the family show phonetic similarity.
This view was shared by the American scientists B.Bloch and T.Trager. They define the phoneme as a class of phonetically similar sounds, contrasting and mutually exclusive with all similar sounds, contrasting and mutually exclusive with all similar classes in the language.
5 The problem of the phoneme can be solved on a “populational basis” (J.A Perry, 1974), that is on the definition of the phoneme as a unit of an idiolect (D.Jones, K.Pike) a dialect (L.Bloomfield), a multidialect- the phoneme is a unit of the English language as a whole (G.Trager, H.Smith), or a “supralect”- the phoneme is a unit of a standard form by which the dialects and idiolects may be compared. (J.A.Perry).
6 L.V.Shcherba (1880-1944) was the first to define the phoneme as a real, independent distinctive unit which manifests itself in the form of allophones. Prof. V.A Vassilyev developed Shcherba’s theory and presented a detailed definition of the phoneme. He writes that a phoneme is a dialectical unity of three aspects:
1.material, real and objective:
2.abstractional and generalized:
3.functional.
It serves to perform the following functions: a) constitutive, b) distinctive,
recognitive.
V.A. Vassilyev states that phoneme is material and objective because it really exists in the material form of speech sounds, allophones. It is an objective reality, existing independently from our will, or intention. It is an abstraction, because we make it abstract from concrete realizations for classificatory purposes, it functions to make one word or its grammatical form distinct from the other, it constitutes words and helps to recognize them.
The actual speech sounds pronounced by the speaker or reader are variants, or allophones, of phonemes. Speech sounds which have one or more articulator and therefore acoustic, features in common and at the same time differ from each other in some degree are said to belong to one and the same phoneme, i.e. are variants of one and he same phoneme.
Since every phoneme has several variants, the need arises for their classification. Besides free variants, the following types of allophones are distinguished, although the definition of certain types is rather vague and it is not always clear to which of types certain allophones should be assigned. First, allophones are divided into: principal, or typical, and subsidiary ones. It is necessary to find objective criteria, the application of which by different people would yield the same results. Two such objective criteria may be suggested: (1) the principal or typical variant of the phoneme is free from the influence of neighbouring speech sounds and other purely phonetic factors, such as absence of stress; (2) it is most representative of the phoneme as a whole, in the sense that has the greatest number of articulatory features among all the variants of the phoneme.
The subsidiary variants of a phoneme are subdivided into two groups: (1) combinatory and (2) positional. The boundary line between this two classes is, however, not at all clear-cut.
Combinatory allophones are those which are clearly due to the influence of neighbouring speech sounds (assimilation, adaptation and accommodation) and to the specific way in which adjacent sounds are joined together.
Positional allophones are those which are used in definite positions traditionally, according to the orthoepic norms of the language.
The articulatory features which form the invariant of the phoneme are called distinctive or relevant. To extract relevant feature of the phoneme we have to oppose it to some other phoneme in the same phonetic context.
If the opposed sounds differ in one articulatory feature and this difference brings about changes in the meaning of the words the contrasting are called relevant. For example: the words port and court differ in one consonant only, that is the word port has the initial consonant [p], and the word court begins with [k]. Both sounds are occlusive and fortis, the only difference being that [p] is labial and [k] is back lingual. Therefore is possible to say that labial and back lingual articulators are relevant in the system of English consonants.
The articulatory features which do not serve to distinguish meaning are called non-distinctive, irrelevant, or redundant; for instance, it is impossible in English to oppose an aspirated [p] to a non-aspirated one in the same phonetic context to distinguish meanings. That is why aspiration is non-distinctive feature of English consonants. As it has been mentioned above any change in the invariant of the phoneme affects the meaning. Anyone, who studies a foreign language makes mistakes in the articulation of particular sounds, L.V. Shcherba classifies the pronunciation errors as phonological and phonetic.
LECTURE 1THE SUBJECT OFTHEORETICAL PHONETICS
Brainstorming questions
1 What does phonetics study?
2 Is it a new science?
3 What sciences does phonetics connected with?
4 Is it a linguistic or non- linguistic science?
5 What type of linguistic and non-linguistic sciences do you know?
6 How many branches and aspects of phonetics do you know?
Questions to be discussed:
1 Phonetics as a science, its aims and tasks 2 Definition of phonetics 3 Connection of phonetics with other linguistic and non- linguistic sciences 4 Methods of investigation used in different branches phonetics 5 Practical and theoretical importance of phonetics.
Key words:phonetics, speech sounds, linguistic and non- linguistic sciences, methods of investigation.
Speech sounds,its aspects and functions
Syllabic structure of the words: formation and division
Phonetics studies
Accentual structure of the words
Intonational structure of the sentences
Phonetics is connected with:
Linguistic sciences: a) grammar b) stylistics c) lexicology
Non-linguistic sciences: a)biology b) logic c)anatomy d)physiology e)physics
Phonetics is not a new science. It was known to the ancient Greeks and to the ancient Hindus. In India more than 2000 years ago there flourished a science of phonetics more advanced than any that has since been known until very recent times. The results, embodied in a series of Sanskrit texts, were,first introduced to the West only some 80 years ago. The scientists of that time were concerned with speech sounds only. It may be said that orthography of all written languages which use alphabets developed in the course of a very detailed phonetic analysis.
Here are some data connected with the history of phonetic development:
1829 laryngoscope was invented.
1852 first observations of the vocal cords were made.
1877 gramophone was invented.
1886 International Phonetic Association (IPA)was founded
Phonetics is not a separate, independent science. It began to develop in Western Europe and Russiaonly in the 19"' century. There has been considerable progress and growth in the 20th century. Within the last half century, especially, new concepts have sprung up, new theories and new methods of investigation have been developed. Phonetics studies the sound matter, its aspects and functions. Not only has the sphere of investigation in phonetics become widened but several new branches of phonetics have also arisen. The most important of these are special and general phonetics. Phonetics, being a branch of linguistics, occupies a peculiar position. It develops according to its own laws. Today the sphere of phonetics is wider and deeper than ever before phonemes and their distribution in words, their mutual adaptation, stress, syllable formation, intonation,relation between oral and written speech and a number of other problems now become object of phonetic investigation. Phonetics, like the other branches of linguistics isclosely connected with a number of linguisticsand non-linguistic sciences, such as grammar, lexicology, stylistics, biology, logic, anatomy, physiology, physics, etc.
Material aspects of speech soundsare those aspects that make for the physical production, transportation and comprehension of the sound
Another aspect of a sound is its function within a language. The function of sounds is, however, examined by another linguistic discipline, namely phonology
Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies the material aspects of speech sounds. What is meant by "material aspect" ? And what other features exist which characterize sounds? Well, material aspects of sounds are those aspects that make for the physical production, transportation and comprehension of the sound. Another aspect of a sound is its function within a language. The function of sounds is, however, examined by another linguistic discipline, namely phonology. This represents the European (including the English) categorization of these linguistic disciplines and that Americans follow a different convention. Americans use the term "phonology" to refer to our understanding of both phonetics and phonology. They refer to what we call 'phonetics' also as 'phonetics', but refer to what Europeans call 'phonology' as 'phonemics'.
The modern alphabet does not suffice to transcribe all sounds on a one-to-one basis. There are many instances though, when we need an internationally comprehensible code for the detailed transcription of sounds, such as in linguistic research, as well as in foreign language teaching. A special alphabet devised by the International Phonetic Association (IPA) is then used. Phonetic characters refer to the actual utterance of a sound. In phonetic writing, the symbols for these sounds are put within brackets.
There are three different physical aspects of a sound. These are the articulatory aspect of the speaker, the acoustic aspect of the channel, and the auditory aspect of the hearer.
Articulatory phonetics researches where and how sounds are originated and thus carries out physiological studies of the respiratory tract, trying to locate precisely at which location and in which manner a sound is produced.
Acoustic phonetics examines the length, frequency and pitch of sounds. Special instruments are required to measure and analyze the sounds while they travel via the channel.
Auditory phonetics studies what happens inside the ear and brain when sounds are finally received. It also interested in our ability to identify and differentiate sounds.
Articulatory phonetics researches where and how sounds are originated and thus carries out physiological studies of the respiratory tract, trying to locate precisely at which location and in which manner a sound is produced.
Acoustic phonetics examines the length, frequency and pitch of sounds. Special instruments are required to measure and analyze the sounds while they travel via the channel.
Auditory phonetics studies what happens inside the ear and brain when sounds are finally received. It also interested in our ability to identify and differentiate sounds.
By phonetics is meant the science of speech sounds, their production by means of lips, tongue, palate, and vocal cords, their acoustic qualities, their combination into syllables and other sound groups, and finally quantity, stress and intonation. Phonetics thus may be called that part of linguistic science which deals with the outward aspect of language as opposed to the inner or psychological side of language, or it may be lookеd upon as that part of physics and of physiology which deals specially with sounds as used by human beings to communicate thoughts and feelings to one another. Among those who have contributed to the development of phonetic science we find physicists like Helmholtz, physiologists like Brücke, and philologists like Sievers, Storm and Sweet.
But what is the use of this science of speech sounds? The true man of science pursues his inquiries without asking at every point about the use of examining this or that. A zoologist will not be deterred from examining the habits of ants or the muscular structure of their hind legs by the cry of the man in the street that it is no use knowing all these things; he will go on patiently observing his animals in exactly the same conscientious and laborious way as if each little step in advance meant so much money saved or gained for mankind, or so much food for the poor. The truly scientific mind does not ask about profit or use, but tries by every accessible means to add to human knowledge and to our intelligent understanding of the wonderful world that surrounds us.
Still, the question about utility is not quite futile; only it should not be urged in the first place, and it should never stand in the way of scientific research, however useless it may seem in the eyes of the uninitiated. Science is useful; but often it is so in a roundabout or indirect way. When Ousted discovered that an electric current influenced the movements of a magnetic needle, he made a great step forward in science. He immediately saw the immense importance of his discovery for knowledge of the great mystical powers of electricity and magnetism; he did not stop to ask himself about the practical usefulness of such knowledge; his concern was exclusively with the theoretical side of the question, and joyfully he sent out the message to his brother scientists that here was one important problem solved. But then Morse seized upon this theoretical discovery and turned it to practical account: the electric telegraph came into existence, and everybody saw the use of Oersted's discovery. In the same manner purely scientific investigations may unexpectedly lead to some great practical result: the observation of the habits of mosquitoes leads to the diminution of malaria and other diseases, and research work in chemistry may eventually benefit mankind in some way not at all anticipated by the original initiator.
Practical usefulness thus often comes in at the back door, it should not be our primary object in scientific pursuits. But on the other hand, if it is possible to point out some practical advantages, this can do no harm, and may even be valuable in inducing people to take up some line of study which has not hitherto been thought necessary to average students. And this applies with especial force to phonetics, which, besides presenting great interest to the inquisitive spirit, offers also no inconsiderable practical advantage to the student.
LECTURE 3 ENGLISH LITERARY PRONUCIATION IN THE BRITIAH ISLES
Brainstorming questions
1 What is pronunciation?
2 What is Standard pronunciation or Literary pronunciation?
3 What is dialect?
4 What is accent?
5 What do you know about Received Pronunciation?
6 What do you know about Standard English?
Speak about different dialects of different parts of British Isles?
"Pronunciation"refers to the way a word or a language is usually spoken, or the manner in which someone utters a word
"Pronunciation" refers to the way a word or a language is usually spoken, or the manner in which someone utters a word. If someone said to have "correct pronunciation," then it refers to both within a particular dialect.A word can be spoken in different ways by various individuals or groups, depending on many factors, such as:• the area in which they grew up • the area in which they now live • if they have a speech or voice disorder • their ethnic group • their social class• their educationThe Literary spoken form has its national pronunciation standard. Some phoneticians, however, prefer the term “Literary Pronunciation ”.British English refers to the different forms of English spoken in Great Britain. In particular it often refers to the written Standard English and the pronunciation known as Received Pronunciation (RP). The written language is known as Standard English and dates back to the early 16th century in its current form. It is primarily based on dialects from the South East of England and is used by newspapers and official publications. Standard written English is basically the same in every English-speaking country, apart from a few minor points of spelling, such as colo(u)r, travel(l)er. Despite common assumption, English has written accent marks; even if most of the accented words are imported from other languages. Some examples: ångström, appliqué, attaché, blasé, bric-à-brac, naïve, résumé. All national types of English pronunciation have many features in common due the common origin. And have many differences due to the different development after the separation from the GB.
In British Isles: Southern English, Northern, Scottish
RP |
GA |
Scottish |
Welsh |
Southern (Cockney) |
Northern |
Northern |
Eastern Am |
Southern Am |
northern |
Ireland |
|||||||
[blAd] |
|
|
[bləd] |
[blaeid] |
[blud] |
|
|
|
[nau] |
|
|
|
[naeэ] |
|
|
|
|
[leidi] |
|
|
[lз:di] |
[laidi] |
|
|
|
|
[baeg] |
|
|
|
[beg] |
|
|
|
|
[siti] |
|
|
[siti:] |
[siti:] |
[siti:] |
[siti] |
|
|
[da:ns] |
[daens] |
[da:ns] |
|
|
[daens] |
|
|
|
[gзl] |
|
[girl] |
[go:l] |
|
[gﻦ:l] |
|
|
|
|
Let-lεət Before ptk [i]-[i:] |
NO: [iə] [uə] [з:] [εə] |
|
|
|
[I,u] r central, :ﻦ& o contrast only before ptk |
|
|
Consonants: |
R is rh L is dark [j] is weak latter-ladder [t] is voiced |
P,t,k non-asp T=gl st Х occur Ing=in Ǿr=fr |
[l] is clear phith [r] rh |
Ǿ=f Ð=d Ð=v L=v Ŋ=n |
[iŋ] = [in] gl.st. after p,t,k [r] - uvular |
L is clear T=d Ð smts lost H is present
Vowel sys is similar to scottish |
|
|
Dialects
T
The three major divisions are normally classified as:
he British Isles are the most linguistically diverse area in the English-speaking world. Significant changes in accent and dialect may occur within one region.
Southern English dialects
Northern English dialects
Scotsdialects
The three major divisions are normally classified as Southern English dialects, Northern English dialects and Scots dialects. The various English dialects differ in the words which they have borrowed from other languages. The Scottish and Northern dialects include many words originally borrowed from Old Norse and a few borrowed from Gaelic. There are thus many differences between the various English dialects. These can be a major impediment to understanding among the older dialects, generally found within the United Kingdom. However, modern communications and mass media have reduced these differences significantly. In addition, speakers of very different dialects may modify their speech, and particularly vocabulary, towards Standard English.