План проведения практических занятий
Course outline
The main purpose of this course is to support you in developing your academic writing and research skills and to encourage the development of the independent approach and study to extended writing and research.
You will be writing a project and preparing for an oral presentation in your subject area in a final work during the ratings weeks. The course involves an integrated approach, with a particular focus on the writing and research skills necessary for such tasks. Fоr this work, you should make most of thе decisions аbоut the topic and tittle, and уоu will саrrу оut thе rеsеаrсh independently (including the sеаrсh fоr appropriate sоurсеs).
This course will help you to develop a number of skills while writing your project and to present your presentation. These include the following:
brainstorming, рlаnning and organizing уоur wоrk
establishing а specific focus and developing уоur ideas
finding sоurсеs of information from books, journals and the Intеrnеt
selecting information аррrорriаtе to уоur needs
incorporating ideas and information into your text through paraphrasing/summarizing and synthesizing while avoiding plagiarism
evaluating уоur sоurсеs апd sеlесting the most relevant and appropriate
developing your critical thinking skills
learning about UK academic conventions fоr referencing and compiling а bibliography
discussing your work with tutor and your peers
giving a presentation about your work
Unit 1. Introduction to extended writing and research.
In this unit you will:
become mоrе aware of what extended writing involves
find out about а writing project
Task 1. You will work on developing the following skills:
Brainstorming and planning your project.
Organising your ideas.
Using resources related to your specialty and selecting relevant information, by skimming and scanning for ideas.
Identifying appropriate ideas from texts to support your thesis.
Reading critically, and evaluating what you read.
Taking relevant notes from written sources.
Paraphrasing, summarising and synthesizing ideas from the text without plagiarising
Supporting your ideas with evidence, and doing in-text referencing appropriately
Writing a detailed bibliography.
Developing word processing skills appropriate for a well-presented project.
Discussing progress on your project at various stages in the course, in class or in tutorials.
Extending your range of academic language.
Improving your drafts by incorporating feedback, and through tutorial.
1.1 You will be working on most of these skills in other components of the course. From the list above write the skill you feel fits most appropriately into the table below
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Reading
Writing
Listening/Speaking
Extended writing at University: why do students write?
Thе rеаsоns whу students саrrу оut extended academic writing activities mау inсludе the following:
to develop and eхрrеss their ideas
to provide evidence to support their ideas
to show thеу саn dispute оr support existing thеогiеs (this involves demonstrating thеir critical thinking ability)
to demonstrate knowledge, based оn thеir extensive reading, lесturеs and seminars
The type of writing required is determined by the purpose of the writing.
Task 2. Critical thinking
This is an important feature of academic study, for example, that you have borrowed a book from a university library that has to be returned the following day, but the book contains important information you need for an essay. You will have to think “critically” about what information in the book would be useful, so you can quickly take appropriate notes of photocopies, i.e., use your critical thinking skills. Understanding what is relevant is one example of the ability to think critically. Another example is recognizing the writer’s purpose, or reason, for writing a text, e.g., whether is to inform, persuade, refute or support a viewpoint.
2.1 List at least three examples of issues you might need to think about critically
when уоu are studying.
1. rесоgnizing геlеvапt infоrmаtiоn
2. idеntifying thе writer’s purpose
3.
4.
5.
Task 3. Types of writing
3.1 Complete the table below to clarify your understanding of different types of writing
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Type of writing
Level of student
Undergraduate/postgraduate
Explanation
essay
Report
Undergraduate/postgraduate
extended essay/project
written work submitted as a part of the course requirement during term time – typically a piece of work 600-6,000-words long
Thesis
Dissertation
case study
Writing as а standard process
Whatever fоrm of extended writing students are to dо, the process will usually involve the following steps:
gathering information from various sources
organizing this infоrmаtiоn so that it fully addresses the requirements of the writing task
planning the text
drafting and redrafting the text until it communicates the information аnd ideas fully and clearly
Whеn саrrуing out research, you need to lеаrn to wоrk independently. This includes:
finding information for yourself
editing and redrafting your work
ensuring you can explain уоur ideas to others
Task 4. Writing a project
There аrе three stages in producing аn extended essay оr project: рlаnning, researching and writing up. In each of these stages, there аrе а numbеr of smaller steps.
4.1 Read steps 1-16 below. Then write them under the appropriate stage headings on page 4, Рlаnning, Researching or Writing uр, in the appropriate order. Write the steps in full, not just the letters,
1. Read the first draft.
2. Edit the draft - decide objectively whether уоur ideas have been expressed сlеаrlу,
3. Think of а working title for the project.
4. Search fоr relevant journals/books/information in the library and оn the lntеrnеt.
5. Write down the details of уоur sоurсеs.
6. Decide if you need to do mоrе rеаding.
7. Write the contents page, bibliography, title page and abstract.
8. Аrrаngе а tutorial with your tutor,
9. Do some reading.
10. Decide on а topic,
11. Write the first complete draft.
12. Highlight/take notes of the relevant information,
1З. Рlаn the content in detail.
l4. Wоrk on establishing а сlеаr focus.
15. Make а rоugh outline рlаn of уоur ideas.
16. Check that sources аrе available/accessible.
Planning
____________________________________
____________________________________
Think of а working title for the project_____
____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
Researching
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
Do some reading._______________________
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
Writing up
Write the first complete draft._______
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
Unit summary
1. Using the following verbs, complete these possible reasons for writing аn extended project.
Dispute develop display provide
а. to show you саn express and ________ ideas
b. to show you саn ______ evidence to support ideas
с. to show you саn ______ оr support existing theories (this demonstrates critical thinking ability)
d. to _______ knowledge
2. Look at the following examples of critical thinking. Mark each with either G,
for this is something I am quite good at, or NG, for this is something I аm поt so
good at and nееd to practice.
а. recognizing what is relevant and what is not relevant _
b. identifying the writer's рurроsе _
с. assessing the writer's argument _
d. evaluating the credibility of the writer’s sources _
3. Tick (٧) the types of extended writing that you need to practise and improve to
bе successful оn your course.
а. examination essay
b. non-examination essay
с. dissertation
d. thesis
е. report
f. case study
4. Look at the three stages involved in producing а piece of extended writing, Fоr each stage, write two of the steps you would need to carry out.
а. рlаnning
b. researching
с. writing up
________________
________________
________________
________________
_______________
_______________
5.Think аbout the topic of the project that you started to discuss in this unit, and
answer the following questions.
а. What have уоu found interesting about this topic?
b. What aspects of the topic have you found quite easy to understand?
с. What aspects of the topic have you found mоrе difficult to understand?
Self work task:
Make a short summary of the topic “EXPO 2017 as a factor of global recognition of Kazakhstan”.
Unit 2. How to write master’s dissertation (introductory course)
In this unit you will:
identify the aims of your dissertation
learn how to write research proposal
analyze the features of writing the dissertation
1. Introduction
The dissertation is the final stage of the Masters degree and provides you with the opportunity to show that you have gained the necessary skills and knowledge in order to organise and conduct a research project. It should demonstrate that you are skilled in identifying an area, or areas, suitable for research: setting research objectives; locating, organising and critically analysing the relevant secondary data and authoritative literature; devising an appropriate research methodology; analysing the primary data selected and drawing on the literature in the field; drawing conclusions; and if appropriate making relevant recommendations and indications of areas for further research.
A dissertation is a ‘formal’ document and there are ‘rules’ that govern the way in which it is presented. It must have chapters that provide an introduction, a literature review, a justification of the data selected for analysis and research methodology, analysis of the data and, finally, conclusions and recommendations. Where the subject is based around a business or an applied situation recommendations for action may also be required. Advice on the range of suitable topics which relate to the subject area of your Masters degree will be approved by your Programme Director or course dissertation co-ordinator.
The Masters level dissertation is distinguished from other forms of writing by its attempt to analyse situations in terms of the ‘bigger picture’. It seeks answers, explanations, makes comparisons and arrives at generalisations which can be used to extend theory. As well as explaining what can be done, it addresses the underlying why. The most successful dissertations are those which are specific and narrowly focused.
You should read this guide before starting your dissertation and consult it as necessary throughout the process. This will help you to make a start to your dissertation and make more effective use of your meeting sessions with your supervisor.
2. The Dissertation in Outline.
2.1. Aims of the Dissertation
The aims of the dissertation are to:
put into practice theories and concepts learned on the programme;
provide an opportunity to study a particular topic in depth;
show evidence of independent investigation;
combine relevant theories and suggest alternatives;
enable interaction with practitioners (where appropriate to the chosen topic);
show evidence of ability to plan and manage a project within deadlines
After completion of the dissertation you should be able to:
define, design and deliver an academically rigorous piece of research;
understand the relationships between the theoretical concepts taught in class and their application in specific situations;
show evidence of a critical and holistic knowledge and have a deeper understanding of their chosen subject area;
appreciate practical implications and constraints of the specialist subject;
Understand the process and decisions to be made in managing a project within strict deadlines
3. The Dissertation.
3.1. The Research Proposal
The research proposal is an important working document and which over the next few months becomes transformed into the dissertation. You will see that the main sections replicate the structure of the dissertation.
Used correctly, the proposal will become your road map through the dissertation process. Because of a wide variety of circumstances the focus of your research may change. If this happens then you should change your proposal document and also agree with your academic supervisor that such a change is appropriate.
The research proposal shows that you have thought through what the main research objectives are to be, that you have identified the main sources of primary and secondary data and that you have given thought as to the research methodology. The Proposal should provide your academic supervisor with a ‘detailed skeleton’ of the whole dissertation; the fine details are added when the literature review is completed and the primary research has been undertaken.
The research proposal should include:
(a) A working title
Your title can and probably will change but using precise wording even at this early stage will help to keep your dissertation properly focussed.
b) An Introduction to the Topic
This will include a brief description of the topic, the aim, research objectives and research questions to be addressed
You will find that moving from research aim to research objectives, to research questions is quite a difficult task. This, however, will provide a clear focus to your research and help you structure both this research proposal and the final dissertation.
The aim of the research provides a description of what you want to achieve from carrying out this research.
The objectives of the research outline the particular issues that you need to address in order to achieve the aim above. They are more specific than the aim, in that they outline the particular dimensions of your research topic, which are relevant to the overall aim of your research.
The research questions are more specific than your research objectives and specify the various insights/information that need to be collected in order to achieve the objectives. Keep in mind that the research question often starts with a Why, How, or What.
(c) A Preliminary Literature Review which indicates: (i) that you have studied the work of the major authors in your research field (ii) that you are familiar with the major themes relevant to that subject area (iii) what further investigations you intend to pursue as part of this dissertation. You should bear in mind that you are reviewing the literature in order to develop sharper, more insightful and focused research questions about your topic. Therefore, your literature review should lead to and justify your research objectives and questions.
(d) The Detailed Research Methodology which you intend to employ. The methodology section should discuss what methods you are going to use in order to address the research objectives of your dissertation. You need to justify why the chosen methods were selected as the most appropriate for your research, amongst the many alternative ones, given its specific objectives, and constraints you may face in terms of access, time and so on. Reference to general advantages and disadvantages of various methods and techniques without specifying their relevance to your choice decision is unacceptable. Remember to relate the methods back to the needs of your research question.
(e) Timetable detailing how you anticipate completing the dissertation by the submission date and, if a company-based project, the means of liaising with the company to ensure the specific objectives are achieved.
3.2. Writing the Dissertation
Deadlines: There is no single start date for you to begin your dissertation as you will be preparing the early ideas and initial reviews in the course of Semester 2. You will be given a specific date to submit which cannot be changed. The Programme Director will provide you with the deadline date allocated to your programme.
3.2.1. Title Page:
The opening page including all the relevant information about the thesis.
3.2.2. Abstract
The dissertation should contain an abstract of up to 350 words. A good abstract is difficult to write and can only be completed after the full dissertation has been written. It represents a brief summary of the results of the dissertation research. By summarising the results of the research, it allows other people to get an idea of what was accomplished without having to read through the whole dissertation. The abstract should provide sufficient information about the results of the research that reading the full dissertation is not necessary, although your markers will read the full dissertation.
• Hints as to what to include in your abstract:
Aim and objectives: What are the main themes, ideas or areas of theory being investigated?
Boundaries: What is the context and background to this dissertation? In what areas of theory or business practice should the reader concentrate their attention?
Methodology: What was/were the main method(s) employed to generate the results?
Results: What were your main findings?
Conclusions: What are the main conclusions that you arrive at when viewing the entire dissertation?
Recommendations: (if appropriate) What solutions do you offer in answer to the problems posed in the research objectives?
3.2.3. Contents Page:
The contents page should list the chapter headings, appendices, references and the pages on which they can be found. Separate listing should be given for lists of figures, tables and abbreviations.
3.2.4. Introduction.
The dissertation should be divided into chapters and sections appropriate to the topic and type of dissertation chosen. You should discuss the overall structure of your dissertation with your academic supervisor.
The Introduction to the dissertation should set out the background to the research study and address the following areas:
The context in which the research took place
What is the background, the context, in which the research took place?
Why is this subject or issue important?
Who are the key participants and/or ‘actors’ in the area under investigation?
Are there important trends or pivotal variables of which the reader needs to be made aware?
A clear and succinct statement of the aims and objectives that the dissertation is going to address.
Have you presented a clear and unambiguous exposition of your research aim, the objectives you will address to meet this aim and your research questions?
The way the Dissertation is to be organised
You should write your dissertation with the idea in mind that the intended reader and reviewer has some shared understanding of the area being investigated, however, underpinning concepts and arguments still need to be included as otherwise the depth of research will be compromised.
This short final section of the Introduction should tell the reader what topics are going to be discussed in each of the chapters and how the chapters are related to each other.
3.2.5. Literature Review:
The main reasons for the inclusion, in a Masters dissertation, of a literature review section are:
To present and to analyze, in a critical manner, that part of the published literature which is relevant to your research topic and which acts as the basis for a fuller understanding of the context in which you are conducting your research.
To act as a backdrop against which what you have done in the remainder of the dissertation may be analyzed and critically evaluated so as to give the reader the opportunity to assess the worth of your writing, analytical and research skills.
To show that not only have you discovered and reported what you have found to be relevant in the literature search, but that you have understood it and that you are able to analyze it in a critical manner.
To show that your knowledge of the area of interest is detailed enough that you are able to identify gaps in the coverage of the topic; thus justifying the reason(s) for your research.
To enable readers to be able to measure the validity of your choice(s) of research methodology, the appropriateness of the process by which you analyze your results, and whether or not your findings are congruent with the accepted research which has gone before.
The literature review is presented in the form of a precis, a classification, a comparison and a critical analysis of that material which is germane to a full understanding of your research study.
Remember that your literature review should lead and justify the research objectives and questions of your dissertation. Your literature review should not just be a catalogue of authors, frameworks and ideas but should attempt to introduce a critical evaluation of those authors work.
3.2.6. Research Methodology.
You should begin the Research Methodology chapter by stating, again, the research objectives of the project. This will enable the reader to make an assessment as to the validity of your chosen research methodology.
This chapter is that part of the dissertation where you have the opportunity to justify to the reader the process by which the research questions, which were derived by an analysis of the relevant literature, were answered. It is not sufficient to say, for example, “suitable respondents were sampled using a quota sampling technique and then surveyed using a postal questionnaire” and then leave it at that. It might well be the case that, given the problem(s) to be investigated, such a choice of research methods is entirely appropriate. However, if you have not taken the opportunity to justify your research choices to a reader they could be correct in assuming that you have, by chance, merely guessed at what would work and, more by luck than judgement, arrived at the ‘correct’ solution to the problem.
The chapter on research methodology must, painstakingly argue for, and justify each, decision that is taken when arriving at the way in which the research is to be organised. Every time that you, the researcher, have to make a choice from a number of options, you must state what each of these are, why you made the choice you did, and why you rejected those not used.
3.2.7. Findings / Results / Data Analysis.
This chapter presents the evidence and/or results of primary research which you have undertaken. Depending upon your subject area this can be in the form of detailed quantitative models, hypothesis testing to some basic analysis using basic descriptive statistics or qualitative techniques dealing with structured content analysis, textual analysis, to case study descriptions.
The main part of the chapter is the presentation of the data that you obtained. Even projects of relatively moderate dimensions will generate a large amount of data which has to be considered. This data must be organised in a logical and coherently ordered whole so that your thought processes and interpretation are clear to the reader.
Whatever form of data analysis has been undertaken, it must be accomplished with care and attention to detail, as should the way in which the results are presented. Nothing is guaranteed to frustrate a reader more than to have to plough their way through an arid mass of tables, figures and statistics
Graphs, diagrams, pie-charts etc. are all useful ways of presenting research results; they are an imaginative way of ‘breaking up’ solid blocks of text – they let a little ‘light’ into the body of the text as long as they are relevant and illustrate your points.
Not all dissertations contain quantitative data. In many situations, students will have made extensive use of qualitative research techniques such as focus groups and/or in-depth unstructured interviews. While quantitative data lends itself to graphs, tables and so on, qualitative data, and the way it is presented, pose particular challenges for students. As ever, your objective should be based on the belief that the data must be presented in such a manner as to make it easy for the reader to follow the logic of the analysis.
The analysis of qualitative data should be based on the research questions and issues that you explored during your fieldwork.
Many students make the mistake of providing a very superficial, descriptive analysis of qualitative data. This does not allow you to demonstrate that the research you undertook was of a substantive nature. Tables can also be included that reflect the respondent’s overall attitudes, perceptions and views about the themes.
3.2.9. Discussion.
In the introduction to the dissertation you described the context of the research. In the literature survey you analysed the work of previously published authors and derived a set of questions that needed to be answered to fulfil the objectives of this study. In the research methodology section you showed the reader what techniques were available, what their advantages and disadvantages were, and what guided you to make the choice you did. In the results section, you present to the reader the outcome of the research exercise.
The introduction of this chapter reminds the reader what, exactly, were the research objectives. Your review of the literature and your evaluation of the various themes, issues and frameworks helped you to develop a more specific set of research questions. In essence, your analysis of the data that you have collected from your fieldwork should provide answers to these questions. You should, as a matter of priority, focus attention on data that is directly relevant to the research questions. You should avoid the mistake of including analysis that might be interesting in a general way, but is not linked to the original direction of the dissertation.
This is the heart of the dissertation and must be more than descriptive. This chapter develops analytic and critical thinking on primary results and analysis with reference to theoretical arguments grounded in the literature review. You should try to highlight where there are major differences and similarities from the literature or between different groups. Where a model or framework of analysis has been used or is being developed you should highlight the main relationships as well as explaining the reason and significance behind features or decisions being discussed.
3.2.10. Conclusions.
Here you will bring together the work of the dissertation by showing how the initial research plan has been addressed in such a way that conclusions may be formed from the evidence of the dissertation. No new material or references should be placed here. The conclusions should make a statement on the extent to which each of the aims and objectives has been met. You should bring back your research questions and state clearly your understanding of those questions. Be careful not to make claims that are not substantiated from the evidence you have presented in earlier chapters.
3.2.11. References:
All references used in writing the dissertation (whether direct quotations or paraphrasing) should be included in a reference list/bibliography, compiled in alphabetical order by author.
3.2.12. Appendices:
Appendices may be used to provide relevant supporting evidence for reference but should only be used if necessary. Students may wish to include in appendices, evidence which confirms the originality of their work or illustrates points of principle set out in the main text, questionnaires, and interview guidelines. Only subsidiary material should be included in appendices.
Unit summary
What must the dissertation’s chapters provide?
What are the aims of the dissertation?
What should research proposal include?
Which hints should be included in your abstract?
Which points can the context have in which the research took place?
What are the main reasons of a literature review section?
What is Research Methodology?
What can you tell about the findings/results/data analysis/introduction/conclusions/references/appendices of the dissertation?
Self work task:
Make a short summary of the topic “Integration of science into production”.
Unit 3. Using evidence to support your ideas
In this unit you will:
discuss the importance of providing evidence in academic writing
lеаrn different methods of incorporating sources
practise summarizing information
Why provide evidence for supporting your ideas?
It is part of Wеstеrn academic соnvеntiоn that any claim made in writing, е.g., аn opinion оr generalization, is supported bу еvidеnсе. This gives уоur wоrk more academic weight.
Using the ideas оf other people in уоur text, and acknowledging them, is аnоthеr essential
aspect оf academic writing. This involves rеfеrring to them twice, first within the text itself and thеn in а bibliоgrарhу at thе end.
In the еаrlу stages of academic writing, students аrе not usually expected to write thеir own original ideas. In fact, the rеаsоn university departments rеquirе students to рrоduсe
Written work is principally to dеmоnstrаtе thаt:
- they hаvе rеаd, understood and evaluated some of the literature in their field
- thеу саn select appropriate academic sоurсеs to suрроrt thеir point of view оr perspective
- thеу саn make use оf ideas frоm mоrе than one source
Thе first of these points involve s critical thinking, mentioned in unit 1. Тhis comes
up at various stages of the course, as the idea is fundamental to academic study.
Task 1. Selective reading for source material
Discuss the following questions with a partner.
Why аrе you going to rеаd the sources оn the reading list; what is уоur рurроsе fоr reading them?
2. How аrе you going to read them? What reading strategies might you use?
З. What are you going to do as you read?
These questions help you to think critically as you approach your reading, i,e,, you should
not bе passively accepting аnу texts that you arе presented with, but asking yourself
questions as you read.
1.2 Complete the table showing reasons why you might want to read а text.
Indicate how important you think each rеаsоn is bу numbеring each statement 1-5: 1= not at all important: 5= very important
Reasons for reading a text |
Importance (1-5) |
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Supporting your opinion
One of thе most important aspects оf writing an academic assignment is that уоu аrе
expected to organize and ехрrеss уоur ideas “in уоur own tегms”. This is truе whеthеr уоu аrе writing а long dissertation оr а simple summаrу fоr an oral pгesentation. То fгаmе something in уоuг own tеrms mеаns that уоur rеаdеr expects to read about уоur point оf view, оr stance. Ноwеvеr, уоu must support уоur point оf view with evidence frоm the literature, оr from fiеldwоrk, e.g., collecting data, оr frоm experiments.
Ву suрроrting уоur opinion with ideas and information frоm thе literature, уоu аrе
strengthening уоur viewpoint and thеrеfоrе providing а mоrе compelling аrgumеnt. Suсh
evidence is expected in academic writing.
Yоur рurроsе fоr reading the sоurсеs is to find information (evidence) that is rеlеvаnt to уоur idea оr thesis about the topic. It is important to remеmbег that not all оf the information in the sоurсes you hаvе will bе relevant. Yоu will therеfоге hаvе to rеаd, selectively in огdеr to identify thе rеlevапt infогmаtiоn.
Reading selectively is essential bесаusе of the heavy reading load that you will have during your academic course.
1.3 Rate the different ways уоu might want to read а text in the table below.
Indicate the importance you place оn the 12 reading techniques below bу numbеring each statement 1-5: 1= not at all important; 5= very important
How to approach a text |
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Task 2. Incorporating evidence into academic work
2.1 Look at example 1 and 2 below. Which statement would you take mоrе seriously? Why?
1. The пumbеr of tourists has increased considerably in the last year.
2. The пumbеr of tourists has increased bу 10% since last year, according to the most recent government report on the economy (UK Government Statistics, 2007)
2.2 Study the following examples of how evidence is used to support а point.
Underline the point being supported and note the evidence given.
1. Anу discussion of financial markets must begin with а definition of what they are:
“A financial market is the place оr mechanism whereby financal assets аrе exchanged
and prices of these assets аrе set” (Campbell, 200З, р. 47)
2. Aссоrdiпg to Wang (2001), education is the key aspect underlying the successful
есоnоmiс development in а society.
Djabri states that operations rеsеаrсh is the application of the methods of science to
complex problems (Djabri, 2009).
As Sloman (2009) has demonstrated, thеrе аrе two mаin methods of measurrng
unemployment.
5. This antibiotic has аn immediate effect оn the illness (Вrаiпе, 2007).
INCORPORATING EVIDENCE
Yоu саn inсоrроrаtе evidence into academic writing in three ways.
Summarizing thе content оf а text: this involves соndеnsing someone’s idеаs into а
shоrtеr fоrm without giving all the details оr explanations. When summarizing, уоu
must acknowledge the writеr and should not include аnу ideas that are not expressed
in thе original (see ехаmples 2,3,4 and 5 in Ex. 2.2). Nоtе that уоu can summarize all
оf thе text, а global summary, or you mау decide to summarize only part of а text,
а selective summary.
Раrарhrаsing the writer's ideas: this involves rеstаting sоmеоne’s ideas using diffеrеnt words and рhrаsеs аnd usually relates to a specific point that thе writer has made. When рагарhrаsing, уоu should usе уоur оwn words as muсh as possiblе. In academic writing a paraphrase is not always shorter than the original; in fact, it may be very difficult to make it shоrtеr without losing thе original meaning. Again, it is important to acknowledge the writer and not to include any information or interpretation that is different from the original.
Using direct quotations: this involves using the exact words of the writer in italics or within inverted commas. You must acknowledge the writer (see examples 1 in Ex.2.2). Quotations are mostly used in essays and journal articles. However, an essay full of direct quotations may detract from your viewpoint and make it difficult for the reader to follow what you want to say. Direct quotations are used less frequently in books, because the authors often want to express their own viewpoint rather than reiterate the ideas or opinions of others.
In most academic writing, thе incorporation оf evidence is done bу using а mixture of the above, but with limited and carefully selected use of direct quotations. Summaries, раrарhrаsеs and direct quotations аrе used bу writers in academic essays as evidence оf detailed knowledge. Yоu should also attempt to use them to demonstrate уоur understanding оf some оf thе most imроrtаnt fеаturеs оf academic writing.
Yоu might summаrizе ideas generally, while acknowledging thе sоurсеs, and occasionally use а direct quotation if this seems to encapsulate thе point you wish to make. You might choose to rеfеr directly to уоur sоurсе (see examples 2, 3 аnd 4 in Ех 2.2), where thе аuthоrs аrе named within thе sentence, using аррrоргiаtе language. Alternatively, you might simply rеfеr indirectly to the source by adding the name and date after your statement (see example 5 in Ex.2.2).
Task 3. Referencing
In this task you are going to practice identifying different ways of referencing. This will raise your awareness of how to reference in your own writing.
3.1 Study the following extract from the text Епvironmеntаl problems аnd
mаnаgеmеnt bу Andrew Jordan and Tim O'Riordan (1999), and highlight
the references.
3.1 Study the following extracts from the text Environmental problems and management by Andrew Jordan and Tim O’Riordan (1999), and highlight the references.
Note: You should ignore the underlined sections.
Environmental problems and management.
The origins of environmental policy
Recognition of the need to both transform and adjust to nature is a fundamental aspect of the human condition. While we may think of ‘the environment’ as a modern political issue that gained popular appeal in the 1960s, the roots of environmentalist thinking stretch back far into the past (O’Riordan, 1976). The natural environment provides humanity with the material resources for economic growth and consumer satisfaction. But throughout history there have always been social critics and philosophers who have felt that humans also need nature for spiritual nourishment and aesthetic satisfaction. John Muir, the redoubtable founder of the Sierra Club in the USA, felt that without wild places to go to humanity was list:
Thousands of tired, nerve-shaken over-civilized people are beginning to find out that going to the mountains is going home; that wilderness is a necessity and that mountain parks and reservations are fountains not only of timber and irrigating rivers, but also as fountains of life. Awakening from the stupefying effects of over-industry and the deadly those of Nature, and to get rid of rust and disease … some are washing off sins and cobwebs of the devil’s spinning in all-day storms on mountains (quoted in Pepper, 1984, p. 33).
Environmental protection is remarkably similar terms today. What is dramatically different is the extent of popular concern. The critical question which needs to be asked is why did modern environmentalism blossom as a broad social movement spanning different continents in the late 1960s and not before? There is strong evidence that environmental problems like acidification and pesticide pollution materially worsened and became more widespread in the public mind in the 1960s and 1970s. The American sociologist Ronald Inglehart (1977), however, believes that we also have to look to society for an explanation. On the basis of careful and intensive public opinion analysis, he argues that modern environmentalism is the visible expression of a set of ‘new political’ values held by a generation of ‘post-materialists’ raised in the wealthy welfare states of the West. This liberated class no longer had to toil to supply their material needs and set out to satisfy what the psychologist Maslow (1970) terms its ‘higher order requirements like peace, tranquility, intellectual and aesthetic satisfaction. This was surely a ‘post-materialist’ sensibility, but at first it was confined to a vociferous minority that tried to push their values onto the majority who steadfastly regarded themselves more as consumers than as citizens.
Other commentators, however, highlight the tendency for environmental concern to exhibit a cyclical pattern over time, with particularly pronounced peaks in the late 1960s and late 1980s. Closer scrutiny reveals that these short-term ‘pulses’ coincided with periods of economic growth and social instability, which at first blush seems consistent with Inglehart’s thesis. Other sociologists have also observed that materially richer and better educated sections of society tend to give much higher priority to environmental protection than poorer ones, with the highest rates among those working in the ‘non-productive’ sectors of the economy, such as education, health and social care (Cotgrove & Duff, 1980). Conversely, concern tends to tail off during periods of economic recession (Downs, 1972), and is not normally as pronounced in poorer sections of Western society or in developing countries. The birth of the modern environmental movement in the late 1960s certainly coincided with a period of economic prosperity and societal introspection. Whether this led to or was caused by the accumulating evidence of environmental decay is open to interpretation.
Source: Jordan, A., & O’Riordan, T. (1999). Environmental problems and management. In P. Cloke, P. Crang & M. Goodwin (Eds), Introducing human geographies (pp. 133-140). London: Arnold. Reproduced by kind permission of Hodder Education.
3.2 Decide if the references in the text are paraphrases/summaries or direct quotations and complete columns 1 and 2 in the table below.
Рау attention to the kind of language used.
-
Name and date
Direct/indirect reference
Idea expressed
О'Riоrdаn, l976
Indirect
5
3.3 Match the list of ideas frоm the text with their appropriate references in the table in Ex.3.2. Complete column 3 of the table.
Ideas expressed by environmentalists
Оnсе people have fulfilled their basic human needs, they want to achieve а better
quality of life.
Interest in the environment tends to relate to the condition of the economic climate.
Environmentalism is а way of demonstrating political values.
It is essential for the environment to bе preserved, for the sake of оur future.
The awareness of еnvirоnmеntаl issues is not necessarily а modern concept,
Оnlу certain privileged sections of society have еnvirоnmепtаl соnсеrns.
Task 4. Reporting verbs
Use of a range of reporting verbs
When you produce an extended piece writing, you will frequently use ideas from other writers, either summarizing, paraphrasing, or mentioning them. Instead of always saying “X said that …”, you need to develop a range of different ways to report on what you want to include. This is a very important aspect of developing your academic style; choice of different verbs also allows you to show your opinion of what is being reported.
Try to extend your range of reporting verbs as you develop your academic skills. You can add these to the table. Useful website: http://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/
Reporting verbs
Argue |
Describe |
|
|
|
Believe |
Maintain |
|
|
|
Claim |
Suggest |
|
|
|
Report |
|
|
|
|
Unit summary
1. Another student has asked you for advice about selecting texts to read. Write three good reasons for choosing one text rather than another.
a.___________________________________________________
b. __________________________________________________
c.___________________________________________________
2. The same student has asked you for advice about how to read а text. Write the three most useful pieces of advice that you would give.
a.___________________________________________________
b.___________________________________________________
c.___________________________________________________
3. Look at the table above which includes some of the most frequently used reporting verbs. Then, read sentences 1-7 and choose one of the verbs from the list to fill the gap in each sentence. Make sure that you are using the correct tense.
1. She _____________ that she was innocent, even after she had been found guilty and sent to prison.
2. Many people ______________ that this policy is flawed.
3. This document ____________ the main problems facing the British rail transportation system.
4. The article ___________ that perhaps global warming had not been scientifically proved.
5. However, a further article _________ that scientists had found a great deal of evidence to support the theory of global warming.
6. The boy ______ that he had paid for the jacket even though he had no receipt or other record of purchase.
7. The author ________ that tourism will clearly remain the most important source of income for Egypt despite a fall in tourist numbers last year.
Self work task:
Make a short summary of the topic “The modern economy of Kazakhstan and its stability”.
Unit 4. Sourcing information for your project
In this unit you will:
look at how a project is structured
learn to identify evaluative and descriptive writing
how to write bibliography
practice academic referencing
Task 1. Structuring projects.
1.1 Study the parts of an academic text listed. Which of these do you already
know about?
Discuss them with another student and think about where they might арреаr in the text.
1. the conclusion
2. а quotation
3. а rеfеrеncе in the text
4. а subtitle/subheading
5. the introduction
6. thesis statement
7. the bibliography
8. the first-name initials of an author/researcher
9. the family nаmе of аn author/researcher
10. the main title page
11. а figure оr table
12. the abstract
13. table of contents
1.2 Look at the project in Appendix 1. Which features from Ех 1.1 саn you find there?
Note that not all projects will contain each of the elements listed in Ех 1.l. For example, some projects mау not have tables or figures, if this is not appropriate,
Task 2. Identifying descriptive and evaluative writing
Students often receive feedback that indicates their work is too descriptive and needs to bе mоrе evaluative. Howeve1 before you саn take this feedback into account, you need to bе able to distinguish first between the features of descriptive writing and evaluative writing, and thеn make уоur own writing mоrе evaluative or analytical.
2.1 This task looks at the features that distinguish each kind of writing. Below the table is а list of features for both descriptive and evaluative writing; you need to put each onе in the аррrорriаtе category.
-
Descriptive writing
Evaluative writing
indicates what happened
indicates the significance of ideas or facts
outlines what sоmеthing is like
is based on reasoned judgеmеnts
рrоvidеs information about а topic
draws relevant conclusions
1. lists ideas, information оr facts
2. explains the reasoning/rationale behind а theory
3. identifies different factors involved
4. shows why something is relevant оr suitable
5. evaluates links between different information
6. places ideas or concepts in their оrdеr of imроrtаnсе
7. explains the significance of information оr ideas
8. compares the importance of different factors
9. outlines what has bееn observed
10. discusses the strengths аnd weaknesses of ideas оr concepts
11, shows the order in which things happen
12. describes а process or а situation
2.2 Read the following extract from Banking system developments in the fоur Asian
tigers. Identify the paragraphs that are mainly descriptive and write D in the bох
provided next to the relevant paragraphs.
Over the past З0 уеаrs, Ноng Коng, South Коrеа, Singapore аnd Таiwаn have had remarkably rapid and sustained economic growth, еаrning them the nickname
'the fоur tigers'. Because of the new investment opportunities they provide and
because their experiences may offer lessons for less developed economies, they have
attracted considerable attention from the financial and policy communities, as well
as from economists who have renewed interest in research in theories of есоnоmiс
growth. Despite their physical proximity and shared economic vigou1 thеrе аrе some
noticeable differences among the tigers. Fоr instance, Ноng Коng and Singароrе аrе
cities with limited resources, whereas Taiwan and South Korea аrе economies with relatively large populations and more diverse industrial structures.
All four economies started out poor in all areas except potential lаbоr supply bеfоrе they began to grоw iп the 1960s ... Exports from the four economies tоgеthеr made up оvеr 10% of the world's total exports, оnlу slightly less than the US in 1994, соmраrеd to only 2,5о/о in 1971 (Glick and Moreno,1997). The relative shares of imports were about the same. These numbers make it сlеаr that ехtеrnal trade has been аn important element in the development of these economies, The external sector (imports + exports), measured relative to total GDP, represented
52% in South Korea,73% in Taiwan, 240% in Ноng Коng, and 280% in Singapore in 'l994 (for the US, bу comparison, it was 17%) ...
Соmmеrсiаl banks also played а critical rоlе, because they were the major Source of private savings. In South Коrеа and Taiwan, the governments required commercial banks to extend credit towards industries tаrgetеd in the governments' development plans. Furthеrmоrе, due to regulated lоаn ratеs, which wеrе below market-determined interest rates, and the lack of loanable funds, these loans wеrе offered at very fаvоrаblе lending rates ...
In 1994, the manufacturing sector accounted for about З1% and 27% of GDP
in Taiwan and south Korea, respectively, whereas banking and financial services
accounted for 18% аnd 17%. In contrast, the relative shares of the manufacturing
аnd financial sectors wеrе 28% аnd 27% for Singapore and 9% апd 27% for
Ноng Коng. The figures seem to reflect the emphases of the past development
policies. “The financial system was rаthеr the accommodator of this rеаl economic
реrfоrmаnсе than its instigator,” wrote оnе economist after examining the rоlе
of the financial sector in economic development experiences of these economies
(Patrick, 1994). Recent banking sector developments in South Коrеа and, to а lesser
extent, Taiwan, point to the negative side-effects that government direction of
credit to рrеfеrrеd industries саn have in the long run. Singapore's ехреriеnсе seems
to suggest that а government could implement industrial development policies
without directing the credit decisions of the commercial banking sector.
Finаllу, Нопg Kong's case seems to illustrate that аn active industrial policy mау not bе essential for rapid economic development.
Source: Adapted from Huh, С. (1997). Banking system developments in the four Asiаn tigers. Federal Ваnk of Sаn Frапсisсо Есопоmiс Letter, 97-122. Retrieved April 8, 2009, from www.frbsf.org/econrsrch/wklyltr/el97-22.htm
2.3 Re-read the text and identify paragraphs that show examples of evaluative
writing. Write Е in the bох provided next to the relevant paragraphs.
2.4 Underline examples of evaluative comments.
Task 3. Acknowledging your sources
3.1 Why do you think it is important to reference the sources you use when writing a project? Add your ideas to the list below.
Reasons for referencing sources:
To show where your ideas originated – acknowledging the source
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
3.2 Compare your ideas from Ex.3.1 with the reasons given below
Reasons for referencing а source
There аrе а number of rеаsоns for referencing sources. Fоr ехаmрlе, you should
acknowledge the sоurсе to show where your idea originated. Another rеаsоn for
referencing is to give уоur writing academic weight, i.e., to show that you have carried out research and found evidence for your viewpoint. You also need to show that you аrе аware of the opinions оr views expressed bу other writers in the field. Finаllу, it is impоrtапt to allow the rеаdеr to find the original source if nесеssаrу.
Omitting to rеfеrеnсе уоur sources, thus failing to acknowledge оthеr people's ideas, is considered to bе рlаgiarism, This is not accepted in аn асаdеmiс piece of work. you will lеаrn mоrе about this in unit 7.
Note: whenever you use information frоm other sources, thеrе аrе certain conventions you need to follow. Тhеrе аrе two different aspects to acknowledging
а source.
- In-text references: within уоur essay. rеfеr to the author bу surname and the date of publication.
- Bibliography оr list of_references: list your references at the end of уоur essay, giving detailed information for each source.
Ways of referring to а source
- Paraphrasing: Retelling what the writer said. in уоur own wоrds.
- Summarizing: identifying the point you want to make from уоur source and
writing it in уоur own words. Whereas а paraphrase will include all the detail, а
Summary will bе shоrtеr and will include оnlу the key information.
Quotation: citing the exact words of the author.
You will lеаrn mоrе about these in units 9 and 10.
Writers normally use а mixture of summarizing and paraphrasing, and оnlу use quotations occasionally. Gеnеrаllу, quotations should оnlу bе used:
- whеn you feel that the author expresses an idea оr аn opinion
in such а way that it is impossible to improve uроn it оr when you feel that it captures an idea in a particularly succinct and interesting way (Trzeciak & Mackay, 1994, p.59).
Task 4. Writing a bibliography
4.1 Look at the bibliographical entry in the bох below. Match the labels 1-10 with
the elements of the bibliographical entry a-j.
1. title of аrtiсlе -
2. nаmе of publisher -
3. date of publication -
4. author's surnаmе -
5. title of book -
6. editor's surname -
7. place of publication -
8. author's initials -
9. оthеr editors -
10. shows book is а collection of articles –
a b c d e f g
Adams, W. M. (1999). Sustainability. In P. Cloke, P. Crang & M. Goodwin (Eds.), Introducing human geographies (pp. 125-129). London: Arnold.
h
i j
Study the rest of the bibliography and check that it has been set out appropriately.
Note: See Appendix 6, Compiling a bibliography, for a brief summary of the APA (American Psychological Association) system of referencing.
Anderson, J.A. (2002, February 5). Going where the big guys don’t. BusinessWeek. Retrieved from www.businessweek.com.
Cottrell, S. (2008). The study skills handbook. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Leki, I., & Carson, J. (1997). Completely different worlds: EAP and the writing experiences of ESL students in university courses. TESOL Quarterly, 31(1),39-69.
There are some problems with the bibliography below. Identify the problems with each entry.
Use the sample bibliography from Ex 131.1 to help you. Check your answers in small groups.
Alan Biham-Boult et al. 1999. People, Places and Themes. Heinemann, pp. 17-22
‘Africa Recovery’ E. Harch (2003). [online]. Available from: www.africarecovery.org
Accessed 18 May 2004
P. Newman, Transport: reducing automobile dependence. In D. Saterwaite (ed.)
The Earthscan Reader in Sustainable Cities. Earthscan Publication pp 67-92(1999)
Unit summary
Mark each of these parts of an academic text with U, for I uпdеrstаnd exactly what this is аnd саn recognize it, or D, for I dоn't really understand what this mеаns.
а. introduction -
b. rеfеrеnсе -
с. quotation -
d. bibliography -
е. contents page -
f. mаin title page -
g. subtitle -
h. figure / table -
i. conclusion -
j. abstract -
Use one book, one article and one website that you are planning to use for your project, and fill in the bibliographical information using the sample bibliography from Ex.4.1.
Self work task:
Make a short summary of the topic “A Changing World”.
Unit 5. Developing your project
In this unit you will:
learn about the process of writing
learn about the features of abstracts and their purpose
practice selecting information from websites
Task 1. The process of writing
The following procedure is useful when writing an extended essay or assignment. You should take into your account for your project.
|
Task |
Skills Needed |
Product |
1. |
Read the question or brief and understand what you are required to do. Think about the subject, the purpose and the audience. |
thinking academically |
Subject. |
2. |
Think about what you know about the subject. Write it down in some way. |
Brainstorming |
Diagrams or notes. |
3. |
Go to the library and find relevant books or articles. |
library/research skills |
Reading list. |
4. |
Find the books on your reading list - if you have one - and study them. |
reading skills: skimming and scanning |
List of materials studied. |
5. |
Make notes on these books and articles. Record full details of the materials you use. |
reading in detail selecting & note-taking paraphrasing/summarising |
Notes. |
6. |
Organise your piece of work. |
planning organisation |
Plan. |
7. |
Type or write your first draft. |
writing from notes synthesis writing paragraphs typing/word-processing |
First draft. |
8. |
Discuss your first draft informally with friends, other members of your class and your lecturer if possible. |
speaking skills listening skills discussion skills |
List of revisions/changes. |
9. |
Revise your first draft, bearing in mind any comments that were made in your discussions. Go back to 2. if necessary Produce your second draft. |
use of dictionaries & reference books writing introduction & conclusion quoting/writing a list of references |
Second draft. |
10. |
Proofread your draft.
|
checking for spelling mistakes checking punctuation and grammar checking vocabulary use checking style checking organisation, references etc. checking for plagiarism |
Writing with changes marked. |
11. |
Produce a final typed version. |
typing/word-processing writing title/contents page |
Final piece of work. |
12. |
Check everything. |
final check |
Hand in. |
Task 2. Working with abstracts
The Abstract is probably the most important paragraph in your whole paper. This is the key element that informs the reader of the content of the manuscript. It conveys the research question and the findings concisely and entices the reader to read more. That and the title are the parts that get the widest exposure. The Abstract is read by more people than the article itself. It should be eye-catching and informative at the same time.
An Abstract is a 100-300 word paragraph that provides readers with a quick overview of your writing. It should express your main idea and your key points; it might also briefly suggest any implications or applications of the research you discuss in the paper.
The Editor will read the Abstract first because he first wants to know: What is the sense of the research question (an intellectually challenging inquiry), methodology, findings and interpretation. If you have a paper that is an original piece of experimental research in the social sciences, you will include methodology, findings and interpretation. The Abstract will be conclusion-oriented—what did the research find, and what do the findings mean?
The Abstract goes at the beginning of the paper. But writing the Abstract involves summarizing the whole manuscript. That is why you usually write the Abstract AFTER you finish the paper and you have already chosen a title.
Use past tense for what was done and found. Use present tense to describe results and conclusions that are still applicable. Don’t be afraid to use passive if necessary. Either way is correct: The study investigated the incidence of ___. The incidence of ___ was studied.
Don’t overload your Abstract with methods or references to the lit.
Give your Abstract to a friend/colleague (preferably one not familiar with your work, and ask him if it makes sense.)
Read Abstracts А and В below. What features саn уоu identify?
Essential background information___________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
Abstract A
In the last 20 years, several researchers have described the changes that computers may bring to the field of language testing. Since the review carried out by the University of Fredericktown (Huntley-Gordon, 2008), writers in the Candleford Language Testing and Assessment Series have made various predictions as to how computer technology could change the testing of foreign language skills. The enthusiasm for much greater use of computers in language testing is based on the idea that computer-based tests will be better than traditional pencil-and-paper tests. This paper sets out to examine the accuracy of this belief and will suggest some important advantages of computer-based testing, together with some words of caution.
Source: McCormack, J., & Slaght, J. (2012). Extended Writing & Research Skills. Reading: Garnet Education.
Abstract B
Assessment of observed teaching practice sessions on teacher training courses is viewed in general by the teaching profession as a flawed but necessary method of evaluation. The nature of observations means that criteria must be flexible to account for diverse teaching styles, while at the same time providing the observer with the guidance to make an informed decision on the trainee’s performance. Inevitably, observers have their own set of personal theories that affect their assessment, resulting in inconsistency of grades warded by different observers. The results suggest that standardization can help effect greater observer agreement, but the limitations of the study mean that the results need ratification through further research. It was found that discussion of grades raised issues such as the need for clearer criteria for grades, the need to limit the list of attributes graded and the importance of high-inference factors in teaching.
Source: McCormack, J., & Slaight, J. (2012). Extended writing & Research Skills. Reading: Garnet Education.
Соmраrе your ideas with the list of features below and tick (٧) the features you have identified
-
Abstract
A
B
а gеnerаl statement/essential background information
the aims of the project, dissertation оr thesis
the implementation of аn investigation in а rеаl-wоrld situation
how the text is organized
details of research саrriеd out bу the writеr
what the results of the research suggest
а thesis statement
a definition
Based оn your reading of each abstract, suggest what you think the titles of the projects or papers A and B
-
Abstract
Possible title
A
B
Task 3. Finding information
Mаnу students ехреriеnсе difficulties in choosing the most аррrорriаtе texts to read when beginning their academic studies, They look at long lists of journal articles, websites and books, und do not know where to start - thеrе seems to bе so much information to sеаrсh through bеfоrе they find what they are looking for. Time becomes а rеаl matter of соnсеrn as deadlines fоr completing assignments draw closer.
You аrе mоrе likely to find what you want if you have а сlеаr idea of уоur purpose, lf you have а сlеаr focus, you can then look for the specific type of information you need.
3.1 Tick (٧) the things you do when researching а topic. Compare and discuss your
answers with another student.
- Write down the topic and think about what you already know. ----
- Make а list of what you do not know and need to find out. ---
- Use specific strategies, such as creating а mind map. ---
You should follow а procedure to determine the usefulness of each source and save
research time. This is the first stage in readin9 and thinking critically.
3.2 Read the following procedure for choosing appropriate reading material.
You will put the procedure into practice in Ex. 3.3
-
Рrосеdurе for сhооsing appropriate reading material for books аnd jоurnаl articles
Check each of the following.
Title: this includes the subtitle; do you immediately feel that it might meet
уоur needs?
Blurb: information about the book written to attract the attention of the reader. This is usually fоund оn the back cover.
Table of contents: this provides а clear overview of what the bооk is about.
Index: the alphabetical list found at the back of а book, telling you оn which pages important key words, information or topics are referred to.
Date of publication: аn important indication of rеlеvаnсе, i.e., how current
Or up to date is the information? ln some cases, of course, you may wish
to refer tо information that is nоt current. In fact, mаnу standard textbooks
were first published several years ago; if the information was carefully
researched, it may well bе аs usеful nоw as it was when the book was first
рublished. Ноwеver, information аnd ideas will often hаvе bееn added to,
eithеr bу the originai writer(s) or bу nеw writers in the area of study.
The recommended reading list: this is the list of books (or core texts) that а particular departmental оr course lecturer suggests students read for а particular course.
Abstract (used for journal articles, papers, theses, dissertations, etc., rather
than textbooks): this provides а quick indication of the usefulness of the text. The abstracts of journal articles are often followed bу а list of key words that will help you to make a selection.
3.3 Go the library and find two books in your subject area. Follow the procedure described in Ex. 3.2 for the books you have chosen. Then complete the tables with details about the books.
Book 1
-
Subject area
Title
Author
Date of publication
Intended reader
Why I would/would not recommend this publication
Book 2.
-
Subject area
Title
Author
Date of publication
Intended reader
Why I would/would not recommend this publication
Task 3.4 Based on the information you find, bе prepared to report briefly оn what you have learnt about one of the books to your classmates. Fоr example:
- what it is about
- who it might bе useful for
- why you would, оr would not, recommend this book to other students in уоur subject area
-
FINDING INFORMATION
Infоrmаtiоп frоm journals
Jоurnаls аrе а furthеr sоurсе оf information, and if you саn identify, thе most аррrорriаtе articles, thеу mау provide information about muсh оf thе work in thе field оr subject area(s). Most journal articles are introduced by аn abstract, which is а briеf outline оf the article.
Thе Internet аs а sоurсе of information Тhе Internet is рrоbаblу thе most соmmоn starting point fоr most rеsеаrсh nowadays, with аn increasing numbеr оf academic jоurnаls now аvаilаblе online. Тhе best way to access these is thrоugh уоur librагу website. However, уоu need to bе саrеful аbоut hоw to nаrrоw уоur sеаrсh, as you may find you have far too muсh information to look thrоugh. Маnу libraries hаvе suggested guidelines to hеlр you sеаrсh. One example is thе University оf Reading librаrу guide at http://www.reading.ac.uk/liЫary/lib-home.aspx; the University оf Reading's Uпiсоrn system allows уоu to sеаrсh for materials in thе librаrу; it also helps you sеаrсh fоr journals online. As there is а gгеаtеr vоlumе оf information аvаilаblе thаn еvеr bеfоrе, it is essential to bе systematic аnd critical whеn choosing уоur sоurсеs. It can bе diffiсuIt to decide if websites аrе rеliаblе; however, certain websites may bе considered wеll researched. Examples of rеliаblе websites аrе those constructed bу educational оr government institutions. Yоu can recognize these websites bу the usе of thе following in thеir web address: .аc and .еdu rеfеr to academic websites. These аrе always linked tо academic institutions. Аn example is http://www.reading.ac.uk .gov refers to government websites. Тhеsе аrе linked to official government organizations, е. g., http://www.defra.gov.uk/sustainable/government/ Other websites mау hаvе а соmmеrсiаl interest and саn bе recognized as follows: .com and .сo. Websites containing .org, on the оthеr hand, аrе usually non-profit and nоn-соmmеrсiаl. А website thаt contains the ~ symbol (tilde) rеfеrs to а реrsоnаl website. You need to bе cautious whеn using suсh websites, unless you have а good knowledge оf thе аuthоr.
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3.5 Study the information in the following table and discuss it with another student.
The explanations in the table should help you to critically аnаlуzе the websites you
епсоuntеr. lf you саnnоt find answers to the key questions in the соlumn оn the left, then
уоu should not rеlу оn the source, i.e., you may not bе able to use it in your work.
Title:
What is the name of the text? |
The title will often suggest whether the contents аrе vеrу specific, or if the text gives аn overview (you should think carefully about уоur particular prupose). |
Authority:
Who (or what organization) is responsible for the website? |
Is it а reliable organization, е.g., UNESCO оr а well-known university? If you саnnоt find the author оr organization responsible for the website, it really should nоt bе used, as you have no way of checking its reliability. |
Date/currency:
When was the most recent update? |
ln some cases, you will need up-to-date information. so the website needs to bе seen to bе rеgulаrlу updated.
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Content:
What is the text about?
How useful is it for your purpose? |
When looking at content, you will realize the importance of having а clear focus.
Make sure the content is rеlеvаnt to уоur understanding of the topic.
Your evaluation of the content will depend оn your reading purpose. |
Accuracy/reliability
Does the information appear to be accurate, to the best of your knowledge? Are there references to other sources? Are there links to other websites? |
You may be able to check the accuracy of the information from another source.
It is expected that ideas will be supported by other sources, which can be a way to check the reliability of the websites. |
Audience:
Who is the intended reader? |
Who is the article aimed at? Information well presented vеrу differently according to the background knоwlеdge of the intended audience.
Who is sponsoring the site? |
Unit summary
1. Tick (٧) the statement that is true for you in each pair.
1. I know how а project should bе structured. ----
2. I don't really understand why а project should bе structured in а раrtiсulаr way.
1. I cаn quickly see what is dеsсriptiоn and what is еvаluаtiоn when I read а project. --
2 I find it difficult to distinguish between description and evaluation when I rеаd
а project. --
1. I understand why it is important to write evaluatively when l write а project. --
2. I don't rеаllу understand why l should write evaluatively when l write а project.
1. I find it fаirlу easy to identify the writеr's thesis when I rеаd а project. --
2 . I don't rеаllу understand what а thesis is. ---
1. I understand why it is essential to have а thesis when writing evaluatively. --
2. I don't see why it is necessary to start аn evaluative project with а thesis
statement. ---
1. I know exactly what the purpose of the conclusion to а project is. ---
2. I don't rеаllу know why it is nесеssаrу to write а conclusion to а project. –
Complete these statements about abstracts. Imagine you are giving advice to аnоthеr student.
а. Аn abstract is _________________________________________________
b. Abstracts аrе very useful because ________________________________
с. Three typical features of abstracts аrе ____________________________
Self work task:
Make a short summary of the topic “Nationalism, Imperialism, and War”.
Unit 6. Developing a focus
In this unit you will:
learn how to choose a topic
practice narrowing the topic to establish a focus
come up with a working title
Onе of the most challenging aspects you fасе whеn working оn а project is to decide on an аррrорriаtе topic and еstаblish а title. It needs to bе а topic that уоu саn nаrrоw down еnоugh to estabish а сlеаr focus so that thе project is not too general. This is not always еаsу to do, as уоu may bе interested in mаnу aspects of а раrtiсulаr topic. However, bу isolating оnе aspect, уоu саn ехрlоrе а subject in mоrе depth. This is а requirement in academic wоrk. Yоu will hаvе еnсоuntеrеd thе first steps to wгiting а project in Unit 1. Тhеsе include: - choosing а topic - brainstorming ideas - nаrrоwing thе focus bу asking уоursеlf questions - estabishing а working title whiсh is flехiblе and whiсh саn bе developed - choosing some sources by looking at journals, books and websites You will look at this area in more depth in the tasks that follow.
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Task 1. Choosing a topic for your extended essay
Choosing а topic requires careful consideration; as you аrе working in your own subject area, you need to display а level of specialized knowledge that shows you have а deeper understanding of the subject. At the same time, you need to consider carefully who your reader is.
1.1 Read these steps, which describe the process of choosing а topic. Рut them in the
appropriate order bу numbering them 1-8.
Decide how practical it is to work оn this topic. __
Find something in your subject area you are interested in. __
Summarize уоur project idea in one sentence. __
Decide how much you already know about the topic. __
Talk about уоur ideas. __
Тhink about а possible working title. __
Look for sources. __
Make а plan. __
Considering уоur reader
When you аrе writing an academic text, you need to consider уоur audience саrеfullу. Note that уоur rеаdеr:
- expects аn academic аррrоасh frоm аn expert in the field
- will not necessarily bе an expert оn the subject you are writing about.
Task 2. Developing a topic
Developing а specific focus will help you choose а suitable topic title and will infоrm
yоur search fоr аррrорriаtе sources. This is particularly helpful when you аrе using а search еnginе, as precise search data always gives the best results.
2.1 Look at the following essay titles. Write the numbers 1-9 where you think they
should go in the table that follows, according to how general оr specific each title is.
1. А comparative analysis of monetary policies in the USA and Japan during the crisis
of 2008-2009.
2. Why organic foods аrе better fоr the consumer.
3. Тhrее results of global warming rn China.
4. The causes of unemployment.
5. The intelligence of intelligent buildings; evaluating current trends and examining what
the future holds.
6. The melting poles: the greatest danger from climate change.
7. Неrbаl medicine and human health.
8. The establishment of the Asian Сurrеnсу unit; а comparative analysis with the Еurореаn Сurrеnсу Unit.
9. The Internet and marketing.
M |
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ost
general
General/specific
Most
specific
Task 3. Establishing a focus
Тhеrе аrе three stages in producing а project: рlаnning, rеsеаrсhing апd writing up. In each of these stages, there аrе а numbеr of smaller steps.
Onе way to establish а focus fоr your topic is to ask yourself questions about it. Fоr ехаmрlе, tourism is а very gепеrаl topic; in оrdеr to nаrrоw it down, you could ask yourself some specific wh- questions: Why? Who? What? Whеrе? Whеn? Which? аnd How?
Note that you may not need to ask all these questions about each topic.
Example questions:
Why is tourism important?
Who is affected bу tourism?
What is tourism?
Where does tourism have the most impact?
Which countries are most dependent оп tourism?
- How is tourism evolving in the 21st сеnturу?
3.1 Add to the list of questions for the following topic, based on the above examples.
The education system in Argentina |
What рrоblеms exist in the Argentiniаn education system?______
How can thе Argentinian education system bе imрrоvеd?________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
3.2 Here are some general subjects сhоsеn bу students. How could you change them, using questions like those in the previous exercise, to make each topic more specific or focused?
- Milk supply and production
- Demographic trends
- Intelligent buildings
- The United Nations
- Genetically modified (GM) food
- China's construction industry
- Class size
- Vitamin С and the соmmоn cold
- Branding
- Future developments in human health
Task 4. Establishing a working title
A working title is one that you think of as a starting point, before establishing a focus for your research and writing. However, as you carry out research and become more involved in the subject of your project, your viewpoint may change. You may then decide to modify your original plan, and this will affect your final title. This is all part of the process of developing your ideas and fine-tuning your research skills.
4.1 Study the following example of a working title and think about why it changed.
The student who created this working title felt that the original one was too general. The student experimented with a second working title before arriving at the third and final title.
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Pollution and its relationship with people and the environment
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The social and environmental impact of pollution
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The environmental impact of pollution in urban areas
Look at these titles. Decide why they are too general. Then rewrite them to make them more specific, to give the essay more focus.
Learning a second language
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Organic food and health
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
The effect of technology on society
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
Now choose two topics related to your subject area and develop your own working titles, going through the steps listed in Task 1.
You do not need to write projects on these titles, but this task will give practice in focusing on specific areas. This will help you to be more precise when you write.
Unit summary
Complete sentences a-e with the correct endings 1-6. You will not use one of the endings.
If I choose a topic that is too general, 1. I might find it difficult to gather enough
information.
If I choose a topic that is too specialized, 2. it might be difficult to choose which
information to use.
If I isolate one aspect of a general topic, 3. my project will not to be accessible to
the average reader.
If I choose a topic I already know about, 4. I will understand the information I
use better.
If I display too much specialist knowledge, 5. I can explore it in more depth.
6. it will be difficult to establish a clear
focus.
A student has asked for advice about establishing a focus for his/her project. Answer his/her questions.
Why is it important to establish a focus when choosing a topic for a project?
How can I make a very general topic more specific?
Delete the incorrect option in each of these statements about establishing a working title.
Having a working title helps the writer to finish a project/ establish a focus.
A working title very rarely/ frequently changes as a project develops.
If a working title changes, it usually goes from being general to being specific/ being specific to being general.
Self work task:
Make a short summary of the topic “Integration of education, science and production”.
Unit 7 Avoiding plagiarism
In this unit you will:
- know about plagiarism
- learn techniques to use sources for the writing
Warm up
Work with your partner, consider the following academic situations and decide if they are plagiarism.
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Situation |
Yes/No |
1 |
Copying a paragraph, but changing a few words and giving a citation. |
Yes |
2 |
Cutting and pasting a short article from a website, with no citation. |
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3 |
Taking two paragraphs from a classmate’s essay, without citation. |
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4 |
Taking a graph from a textbook, giving the source. |
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5 |
Taking a quotation from a source, giving a citation but not using quotation marks. |
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6 |
Using something that you think of as general knowledge, e.g. large areas of rainforest have been cut down in recent years. |
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7 |
Using a paragraph from an essay you wrote and had marked the previous semester, without citation. |
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8 |
Using the results of your own research, e.g. from a survey, without citation. |
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9 |
Discussing an essay topic with a group of classmates and using some of their ideas in your own work. |
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10 |
Giving a citation for some information but mis-spelling the author’s name. |
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This exercise shows that plagiarism can be accidental. For example, situation (10) above, when the author’s name is m is-spelt, is technically plagiarism but really carelessness . In situation (9) your teacher may have encouraged you to discuss the topic in groups, and then write an essay on your own, in which case it would not be plagiarism. Self-plagiarism is also theoretically possible, as in situation (7). It can be difficult to decide what is general or common knowledge (situation 6), but you can always try asking colleagues.
However, it is not a good excuse to say that you didn’t know the rules of plagiarism, or that you didn’t have time to write in your own words. Nor is it adequate to say that rules are different in your own country. In general, anything that is not common knowledge or your own ideas and research (published or not) must be cited and referenced.
What is plagiarism?
Basically plagiarism means taking ideas or words from a source without giving credit (acknowledgement) to the author. It is seen as a kind of theft, and is considered to be an academic crime. In academic work, ideas and words are seen as private property belonging to the person who first thought or wrote them. Therefore, it is important for all students, including international ones, to understand the meaning of plagiarism and learn how to prevent it in their work.
The main difficulty that students face is that they are expected:
to show that they have read the principal experts on a subject – by giving citations
to explain these ideas in their own words and come to their own original conclusions
There are several reasons why students must avoid plagiarism:
Copying the work of others will not help you develop your own understanding
To show that you understand the rules of the academic community
Plagiarism is easily detected by teachers and computer software
It may lead to failing a course or even having to leave college
2. Acknowledging sources
If you borrow from or refer to the work of another person, you must show that you have done this by providing the correct acknowledgement. There are two ways to do this:
Summary and citation
Smith (2009) claims that the modern state wields power in new ways.
Quotation and citation
According to Smith: ‘ The point is not that the state is in retreat but that it is developing new forms of power…’(Smith, 2009:103)
These in-text citations are linked to a list of references at the end of the main text, which includes the following details:
Author |
Date |
Title |
Place of publication |
Publisher |
Smith, M. |
(2009) |
Power and the State |
Basingstoke |
Palgrave Macmillan |
The citation makes it clear to the reader that you have read Smith and borrowed this idea from him. This reference gives the reader the necessary information to find the source if the reader needs more detail.
Avoiding plagiarism by summarizing and paraphrasing.
Quotations should not be over-used, so you must learn to paraphrase and summarize in order to include other writers’ ideas in your work. This will demonstrate your understanding of a text to your teachers.
Paraphrasing involves re-writing a text so that the language is substantially different while the content stays the same.
Summarizing means reducing the length of a text but retaining the main points.
Task 1
Read the following text and then compare the five paragraphs below, which use ideas and information from it. Decide which are plagiarized and which are acceptable, and give your reasons in the table.
Railway manias
In 1830 there were a few dozen miles of railways in all the world – chiefly consisting of the line from Liverpool to Manchester. By 1840 there were over 4,500 miles, by 1850 over 23,500. Most of them were projected in a few bursts of speculative frenzy known as the ‘railway manias’ of 1835-7 and especially in 1844-7; most of them were built in large part with British capital, British iron, machines and know-how. These investment booms appear irrational, because in fact few railways were much more profitable to the investor than other forms of enterprise, most yielded quite modest profits and many none at all: in 1855 the average interest on capital sunk in the British railways was a mere 3.7 percent.
(From The Age of Revolution by Eric Hobsbawm , 1955, p.45)
Between 1830 and 1850 there was very rapid development in railway construction worldwide. Two peoples of especially feverish growth were 1835-7 and 1844-7. It is hard to understand the reason for this intense activity, since railways were not particularly profitable investments and some produced no return at all. (Hobsbawm, 1955: 45)
There were only a few dozen miles of railways in 1830, including the Liverpool to Manchester line. But by 1840 there were over 4,500 miles and over 23,500 by 1850. Most of them were built in large part with British capital, British iron, machines and know-how , and most of them were projected in a few bursts of speculative frenzy known as the ‘railway manias’ of 1835-7 and especially in 1844-7. Because most yielded quite modest profits and many none at all these investment booms appear irrational. In fact few railways were much more profitable to the investor than other forms of enterprise. (Hobsbawm, 1955: 45)
As Hobsbawm (1995) argues, nineteenth-century railway mania was partly irrational: ‘because in fact few railways were much more profitable to the investor than other forms of enterprise, most yielded quite modest profits and many none at all: in 1855 the average interest on capital sunk in the British railways was a mere 3.7 percent. ‘(Hobsbawm, 1955: 45)
Globally, railway networks increased dramatically from 1830 to 1850; the majority in short periods of ‘mania’ (1835-7 and 1844-7). British technology and capital were responsible for much of this growth, yet the returns on the investment were hardly and better than comparable business opportunities. (Hobsbawm, 1955: 45)
The dramatic growth of railways between 1830 and 1850 was largely achieved using British technology. However, it has been claimed that much of this development was irrational because few railways were much more profitable to the investor than other forms of enterprise; most yielded quite modest profits and many none at all.
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Plagiarized or acceptable? |
A |
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B |
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C |
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D |
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E |
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Task 2
Write in text citation for the extracts given above
Task 3
Few students deliberately try to cheat by plagiarizing, but some develop poor study habits that result in the risk of plagiarism.
Work with a partner, add to the list of positive habits.
Plan your work carefully so you don’t have to write the essay at the last minute.
Take care to make notes in your own words, not copying from the source.
Keep a record of all the sources you use (e.g. author, date, title, page numbers, publisher)
Make sure your in-text citations are all includes in the list of references.
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
Task 4
Research
Does your university have a policy on plagiarism? Look on the website to find out. It may raise some issues that you want to discuss with colleagues or your teachers.
If you can’t find anything for your institution try one of this sites;
http://owl.english.purduce.edu/owl/resource /589/01/
http://uefap.com/writing/plagiar/plagfram.htm
Self work task:
Make a short summary of the topic “People in History”.
Unit 8. Incorporating data and illustrations.
In this unit you will:
learn how data are incorporated into academic texts
learn how to analyze data
practise using the language of data commentary
Another aspect of academic writing is data commentary. Data are statistical information that is presented graphically in the form of tables or figures; they are used to support the information and ideas of the academic researcher. Illustrations include a range of images such as photographs, screenshots and diagrams. In academic writing, illustrations should only be used to help clarify ideas or information; in other words, they should enhance an explanation. you should always provide the sоurсе of your data.
In this unit, you will look at data connected with digital media, visits to Вritаin and perceptions of Britain as a holiday destination.
Task 1. The purpose of data
1.1 Brainstorm the following questions in groups. Use your own knowledge аnd the information above.
1. What аrе data?
2. Why аrе data sometimes included in academic texts?
Study tip Graphs аnd сhаrts, (known as figures) and tables саn summarize key information in а very concise way. |
Task 2. The language for incorporating data
2.1 Look at the examples of data (1-4) on pages37-38. Identify whether each piece of data is а figure or a table and label it appropriately.
lf it is а table, write Table [1] above. lf it is а figure, write Figure [1] below.
Note: The data includes two graphs, а bar chart and а table.
2.2 The two captions below match two of the pieces of data. Identify which pieces they belong to and write them in the appropriate position above or below the data.
1. Household take-up of digital television by type of service.
2. Selected media activities that would be missed the most ассоrding to age, 2008
Now think of captions for the other two pieces of data and write them in the appropriate places.
Read the text below and add a reference to each place at a suitable place in the text.
In 2008 the ‘digital switchoer’ began. Data from ofcom (figure 2) shows that nearly 87 per cent of homes in the UK had a digital television service at the end of the first quarter of 2008, a rise of 71 percentage points since 2000. A digital television set can also transmit digital radio stations. According to Radio Joint Audience Research limited, the average time spent listening to the radio by people in the UK in the first quarter of 2007 was 19 hours and 24 minutes per week; average listening time increases with age. Between 2001-2002 and 2006-2007, radio listening fell among most age groups. The proportion of people reading a daily newspaper has also been declining for a number of years. The national readership survey shows that, on an average day, less than 44 per cent of people aged 15 and over in Great Britain read a national daily newspaper in the 12 months to June 2008, compared with 72 per cent in the 12 months to June 1978. In 2007, Ofcom asked which media activity respondents would miss the most if they were all taken away. Watching television would be the most missed activity for all age groups except those aged 16 to 19, who would miss the mobile phone the most.
Source: Adapted from Self, A. (Ed.). (2008). Social trends 38 and hughes, M. (Ed.). (2009). Social trends 39. Retrieved April 21, 2009, from National Statistics Online: www.statistics.gov.uk
Self work task:
Make a short summary of the topic “World War II and its effects”.
Unit 9. Paraphrasing, summarizing and writing introductions {part 1)
In this unit you will:
look at paraphrasing i.e. writing another person’s idea in your own words
look at summarizing, i.e. identifying the main ideas of the writer and putting them in your own words
Task 1: Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing is writing the ideas of another person in your own words. You need to change the words and the structure but keep the meaning the same. Remember that even when you paraphrase someone’s work, you must acknowledge it. Look at this example, the original written by Andy Gillett.
Source
It has long been known that Cairo is the most populous place on earth, but no-one knew exactly how populous it was until last month.
Paraphrase
Although Cairo has been the world’s most heavily populated city for many years, the precise population was not known until four weeks ago. (Gillett, 2008).
What has the writer done to put this paragraph “into their own words”?
The process of paraphrasing involves the following stages:
Read and understand the text.
Make a list of the main ideas.
Find the important ideas – the important words/phrases. In some way mark them - write them down, underline or highlight them.
Find alternative words/synonyms for these words/phrases – do not change specialized vocabulary and common words.
Change the structure of the text.
Identify the meaning relationships between the words/ideas – e.g. cause/effect, generalization, contrast. Express these relationships in different way.
Change the grammar of the text: change nouns to verbs, adjectives to adverbs, etc., break up long sentences, combine short sentences.
Rewrite the main ideas in complete sentences. Combine your notes into a piece of continuous writing.
Check your work.
Make sure the meaning is the same.
Try to be concise and keep a similar length (not easy!)
Make sure the style is your own.
Remember to acknowledge other people’s work.
Adapted from Gillet, A. (2008) Information on paraphrasing retrieved from http://www.uefap.com/writing/writfram.htm
Task 2: Practice in paraphrasing
you are now going to practice paraphrasing single sentences. Choose one sentence from the text below on tourism in Goa and use the following steps to paraphrase:
Ensure you understand the text
Underline or highlight the key points
Use synonyms (similar vocabulary) for the main content words
Change the structure of the sentence i.e. grammar and word order (active-passive; adjectives to adverbs), rewriting in your own words
Variously known as “Pearl of the Orient” and a “Tourist Paradise”, the state of Goa is located on the western coast of India in the coastal belt known as Konkan. The magnificent scenic beauty and the architectural splendours of its temples, churches and old houses have made Goa a firm favourite with travellers around the world. But then, Goa is much more than just beaches and sea. It has soul which goes deep into a unique history, rich culture and some of the prettiest natural scenery that India has to offer.
From: Goa Department of Tourism (2005). Retrieved January 12, 2005, from http://www.gotourism.org/About_Goa/goa_intro.htm
Paraphrase
Task 3: What is summary?
Complete the definition of a summary below with suitable words for the gaps 1-6.
A summary is a (1) __________ version of a text. It contains the (2) __________points in the text and is written in your(3)__________words. It is a mixture of reducing a (4)________text to a shorter text and selecting relevant information. A good summary shows that you have (5)______ the text. When you summarize someone’s work, you (6) ____ acknowledge it.
____
(6)________acknowledge it.
You will often summarize ideas in academic writing, but summaries can also be useful when you are looking for information. It is an essential reading skill to preview certain parts of and article or book which provide summaries. These can help you decide how useful the material is for your purposes. The table below lists these parts
What is meant by the following terms?
‘table of contents’
‘blurb’
‘preface’
Academic article |
Title |
Abstract Introduction Conclusion |
Headings Topic sentences Diagrams |
Book |
Title Table of Contents |
Blurb Introduction Preface Conclusion |
Headings Topic sentences Diagrams |
Chapter |
Title |
Introduction (1st 2/3 parag’s) Conclusion (last 2/3 parag’s) |
Headings Topic sentences Diagrams |
Essay/report/dissertation |
Title Table of Contents (if appropriate) |
Abstract (if appropriate) Introduction Conclusion |
Section headings Sub-headings Topic sentences Diagrams |
Task 4: Practice in summarizing.
4.1 Look at the short sample summary below and discuss with a partner the changes and omissions which have been made in order to produce the summary.
Source: The amphibia, which is the animal class to which our frogs and toads belong, were the first animals to crawl from the sea and inhabit the earth. |
Summary: The first animals to leave the sea and live on dry land were the amphibia. (Gillet, 2008) |
Source: Gillet, A. (2008) Information on summarizing adapted from http://www.uefap.com/writing/writfram.htm
Self work task:
Make a short summary of the topic “The main provisions of the "Strategy 2050" Republic of Kazakhstan”.
Unit 10. Paraphrasing, summarizing and writing introductions (part 2)
In this unit you will:
analyze the features of introduction
Identify the thesis statement
WRITING INTRODUCTIONS Whеn writing an academic text such as а ргоjесt, it is important to think аbоut thе structure, i.e., thе individual components of the text, such as introductions аnd соnсlusiоns. Тhе introduction hаs а сlеаr function as the fiгst part оf the text: it sets the tone for the reader by giving some idea of the content and thе stance of the writer; it also suggests how thе piece of wоrk is oгganized, Тhе conclusion rоunds оff the essay: it rеfеrs back to the introduction and pulls together all thе mаin ideas; it is an opportunity to show hоw well you have dealt with thе issues yоu raised in the introduction These аrе some key fеаtuгеs that саn bе included in an intгoduction: 1. аn intгоduсtiоn tо thе topic оf уоur essay/bасkgгоund information 2. justification fоr уоur сhоiсе of topic fосus 3. an outline оf thе struсturе оf thе essay 4. definitions of key tеrms rеlаtеd to thе topic 5. уоur thesis statement (уоur viewpoint оr perspective) 6. уоur purpose for writing the essay |
Task 1. Features of introduction
Introduction 1 is taken from the project of a student. Discuss the features of the introduction with another student.
Introduction 1
To what extent is bank borrowing the best choice for small and medium-sized enterprises raising funds in Vietnam?
In the economic development process in Vietnam, small and medium-sized enterprises are increasingly encouraged to expand. In promoting the growth of these companies, raising capital plays an important role in improving and marketing new products, expanding industries and managing daily operations. According to the World Bank’s reports, companies can raise money from several sources: from capital markets, from buying and selling shares, owning the franchise or increasing venture capital (2006).
Another common alternative is bank borrowing. Although bank loans entail the disadvantages of high interest rates and limitations on the amount of the loan, they still bring undeniable advantages such as flexibility and safety. Borrowing from the bank appears to be particularly convenient for small firms in developing economies. By examining the features of bank borrowing, this paper will show that this is the best choice for Vietnamese small enterprises.
Source: Edited extract from authentic student material
Look at how certain features can be identified using the following table.
Which features do you think overlap?
Why do you think two of the features are not included?
Table 1: Features of introduction 1.
-
Feature
Relevant section of text
introduction to topic
In the есоnоmiс development рrосеss in Viеtnаm, small аnd medium-sized еntеrрrisеs are increasingly епсоurаgеd to ехраnd.
background information
In prоmоting the growth of these companies,
raising capital рlауs аn imроrtаnt rоlе in improving and marketing nеw products, ехраnding industries and managing daily operations.
Justification
According to the World Bank’s reports, companies can raise money from several sources: from capital markets, from buying and selling shares, owning the franchise or increasing venture capital (2006)
Another common alternative is bank borrowing.
outline of structure
Not included.
definition of key terms
Not included.
thesis statement
Воrrоwing frоm the bаnk арреаrs to bе particularly соnvеniеnt for small firms in developing economies.
writer’s purpose
Bv ехаmining the features of bаnk bоrrоwing, this paper will show that this is the best choice for Vietnamese small enterprises.
Note: From Ex1.2 it will be clear that certain features overlap. For example, background information may bе considered in part as justification and the thesis statement may bе
linked with the writer's purpose. Furthеrmоrе, certain features аrе not always included,
Fоr example, in introduction 1 there is no definition or outline of what is to follow in the text.
Now analyze Introduction 2 in the same way. Then match the lettered extracts to the appropriate features in table 2.
Introduction 2
What role does the real estate property market play in the economy?
A The real estate property market plays an essential role in the economic system of any country. On average, property accounts for 605 of national wealth (Walker & Flanagan, 1991). B Broadly speaking, the real estate market involves many industries, including construction, commerce, retail and services, thus acting as an economic focus point.
C This essay aims to show that even though the real estate market plays a similar role in different countries, it does in fact have a different impact on economies at different stages of maturity: for example, the different impact on developed and developing countries. D Two countries are compared in order to identify these differences: the USA as a developed country, and China as a developing country. It gives some background to the real estate market: specifically property and capital. Secondly, it describes the role real estate plays in the economy, and finally it evaluates the key differences, showing that – in developing countries - the real estate market promotes the national economy through industry, and in developed countries this is done through the capital market.
Source: Edited extract from authentic student material.
Table 2: Features of introduction 2
-
Feature
Relevant section of text
introduction to topic
background information
Justification
outline of structure
definition of key terms
thesis statement
Not included
writer’s purpose
Analyze Introduction 3. Then write the line number for the part of the introduction that corresponds to the appropriate features in Table 3.
Introduction 3
The problem of overfishing in the great lakes of developing African countries and a review of current policy
Over the past few decades, overfishing has been identified as one of the main threats to the sustainability of aquatic ecosystems, although policies to regulate it are in place. The current policy implemented by developing African countries with great lakes, such as Zambia and Tanzania, addresses the conservation and sustainable use of fisheries’ resources. This is because the policy emphasizes resource conservation rather than alternatives that would remedy the situation. Hence, the policy needs to be reviewed in order to incorporate measures that would have a positive impact and reduce the depletion of resources that has caused an overfishing problem in lakes.
The term overfishing can be defined as the ‘exploitation of the resource beyond the maximum sustainable yield (MSY) as a result of over-intensive fishing as the stock biomass is decreasing’ (Travers et al., 2010). This implies that when a particular species is overfished, either for food or commercial purposes, there is a problem. This is experienced particularly when most of the fishing community in developing African countries depend on fishing as one of their main socio-economic activities and overfishing can lead to loss of employment, income and sources of food.
Fish numbers taken from lakes have undoubtedly increased at an alarming rate over the last 10-15 years, and this threatens the availability of some varieties. A policy with a precautionary approach would reduce the overfishing problems and improve the fishery resource stock. This essay will give an overview of the overfishing problem and explain how it happens. It will attempt to identify the people responsible for this problem, evaluate the current policy on overfishing and recommend how the problem can be reduced.
Source: Edited extract from authentic student material.
Table 3.
-
Feature
Relevant section of text
introduction to topic
background information
Justification
outline of structure
definition of key terms
thesis statement
writer’s purpose
Look at the introduction for your own project. Identify which features it contains and tick (٧) them in the “My project” column of the table.
-
Feature
My project
My partner’s project
introduction to topic
background information
justification
outline of structure
definition of key terms
thesis statement
writer’s purpose
Task 2. The language of introductions
2.1 Look again at Introductions 1-5. Underline any expressions or phrases in these introductions that you think might be useful.
Examples:
Introduction 1: By examining the features of bank borrowing, this paper will show that….
Introduction 2: Broadly speaking, the real estate market involves many industries, including construction, commerce, retail and services, …
2.2 Think about how you might use some of these in your own academic writing and write some examples.
By examining the role of the Internet in marketing, this paper will show that …
Broadly speaking, marketing involves the four ‘Ps’: product, price, promotion and place.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Task 3. Identifying the thesis statement
Thе thesis Statement should bе one of the key elements of уоur academic writing. Normally, it should bе included in the introductory part of уоur text and should indicate to уоur rеаdеrs уоur perspectives or attitude to the topic you аrе introduсing (stance). It may also indicate how уоur ideas аrе organized within the text. А well-expressed thesis statement will help to:
- provide а сlеаr focus
- direct the rеаdеr
Кеу points in а thesis statement
А strong thesis statement is specific and makes а point effectively.
Example: Obsessive and excessive еxеrсisе is а саusе of mеntаl and physical
рrobеms.
Note the following points.
- Тhеrе is one key idea.
- The cause аnd the effect аrе distilled in а single sentence.
- The rеаdеr gets а сlеаr idea of the content, the stance (or viewpoint) аnd the рrоbаblе organization of the text from this single sentence.
This suggests that а thesis statement is а condensed form of the writer's purpose.
3.1 Study the sentences below аnd identify the purpose of each. Label each one with the appropriate letter: В for bасkground information, E for explanation or T for thesis statement.
Onе sentence contains simple background information, one is аn explanation and the other is а thesis statement.
1, The сосоа bеаn contains mаnу nutrients, frоm fat to vitamin С, as well as caffeine.
2, Although excessive amounts of caffeine саn bе damaging to health, rесеnt rеsеаrсh indicates that а limited amount саn bе beneficial.
3, It stimulates the brаin, aids concentration and may help to limit the effects of сеrtаin diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson’s
Discuss уоur answers with another student.
3.2 Read the introduction below and underline the thesis statement. Then answer the questions.
-
The оnly consistent thing about cities is that they аrе always changing. Classifying and understanding the processes of urban change present problems for geographers and others studying the city. Cities, sinсе their incерtiоn, have always grаduаl, piecemeal change through processes of accretion, addition or demolition. This type of сhаngе саn bе regarded as largely cosmetic and the underlying processes of urbаnisаtiоn аnd the overall structure of the city геmаin largely unaltered, Ноwеvеr, at сеrtаin periods fundamentally diffeгent processes of urbanisаtiоn have emerged. The result has bееn that the rate of urban change has ассеlerated and new, distinctly different, urbаn forms have developed. This occurred, fог example, with the urbanisation associated with industrialization in the UК in the nineteenth сеnturу.
Source: Hall, т. (2001). Urbаn geography. London: Routledge.
1. How does this thesis statement help to direct the rеаdеr and possibly determine the organization of the text that follows?
2. What functions do other sentences in this introduction реrfоrm?
The role of the thesis statement in text organization
The thesis statement may also determine the organization of the text. Yоu саn use the following guidelines to аrrivе at your thesis statement,
- Тurn the title of the text into а question.
- Distil the answer into оnе оr two sentences.
- lf the title is already а question, simply write the answer.
- Ask yourself what уоur viewpoint is.
3.3 Write а short, four- or five-sentence introduction to а topic of your choice
(preferably related to your subject).
The introduction should contain а thesis statement,
Соmраrе your introduction with оnе your teacher will show you.
Unit summary
Look at the following titles and consider what ideas you would expect the writer to include in his/her essay?
Travelling alone in a foreign country is more beneficial than travelling in a group, because you have the opportunity to experience the new culture more fully.
Helping poorer countries to help themselves is more beneficial than giving them financial aid.
-
Possible ideas to include
Title 1
Title 2
From reading the following introduction, which areas would you expect the essay to cover? Make notes in the space provided.
This essay will examine the impact that tourism has had on local employment in the past 10 years, showing that although it has been beneficial particularly for agro-tourism, it has been detrimental to the food industry.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Read the text below and then decide which is better paraphrase, (a) or (b)?
Ancient Egypt collapsed in about 2180 bc. Studies conducted of the mud from the River Nile showed that at this time the mountainous regions which feed the Nile suffered from a prolonged drought. This would have had a devastating effect on the ability of Egyptian society to feed itself.
The sudden ending of Egyptian civilization over 4,000 years ago was probably caused by changes in the weather in the region to the south. Without the regular river flooding there would not have been enough food.
Research into deposits of the Egyptian Nile indicate that a long dry period in the mountains at the river’s source may have led to a lack of water for irrigation around 2180 bc, which was when the collapse of Egyptian society began.
Self-work task
Make a short summary of the topic “The World today”.
Unit 11. Academic Style and Writing Conclusion (part 1)
In this unit you will:
look at some aspects of academic style, including use of reporting verbs, linking ideas and sentence structure
Listening: Marion Grussendorf “English for Presentation”, Oxford University Press, 2007 Ex 1 p.42
Academic style covers a wide range of factors: it relates to your choice of vocabulary, the sentence structure you use, the way you link your ideas together both within a paragraph, and through different parts of your essay.
Task 1. Academic style – recognizing the difference
Read the following two passages A and B, and decide which you think is more academic in style. Why? Note some specific examples from the two texts by underlining or highlighting.
Can you name any of the features you have identified in Text B which are different from Text A?
i)
ii)
iii)
QUESTION: ‘Describe the short and long-term environmental effects of the deforestation of the Amazon Basin’.
Text A
(1) It’s obvious that if you destroy the trees of the Amazon Basin, you create problems both now and in the future. (2) In the short term, if people burn and log the forests, they get rid of a lot of kinds of flowers and animals. (3) And if they remove the forest, this takes away the food sources of the people who live there and who hunt and gather in them. (4) If you remove the protective canopy, the delicate soils of the area will be rapidly washed away by the heavy rainfall. (5) The people who clear the forests to raise animals and grow crops then find that the soil is useless. (6) Destroying the trees doesn’t just affect the Amazon Basin. (7) It has effects all over the world. …
Text B
The deforestation of the Amazon Basin leads to the creative of both short-term and long-term problems. (2) In the short-term, burning and logging forests may eliminate many species of fauna and flora. (3) The removal of forest also deprives hunting-and-gathering communities of food sources. (4) After the removal of the protective canopy, the delicate soils of the area may be rapidly eroded be the heavy rainfall, thus making the land useless for the pastoral or arable activities which often accompany forest clearance. (5) The effects of such large-scale deforestation are not simply local, but also global. …
Source: How to prepare for IELTS British Council
Features of text B which indicate academic style
- Vocabulary is more formal
- Ideas are linked together e.g. ideas in sentences 6 and 7 have been combined for sentence 5.
- Full form of verb is used e.g. ‘it is’, not ‘it’s’
- It is more impersonal ‘the removal of…………’ replaces ‘if they remove’………..
- It is shorter although this is not necessarily a feature of more academic texts)
Academic Style – some guidelines
Source: Australia Study and Learning Centre (2007) Writing Skills. Accessed 1 Feb 2-11 at http://www.dlsweb.rmit.edu.au/lsu/
In the same way that recipes or disc jockeys use a particular style and form of language, academic assignments usually follow a particular style. Here are some guidelines:
Be tentative
Very little in the world today is clearly either right or wrong, all or nothing. Beliefs we may have held at one time may be challenged. Most research cannot cover every case of an event of phenomenon so most theories are open to modification. Academics, therefore, are cautious in the way they present their findings. and so should you be in your assignments. Use words or phrase such as:
X suggests that
There is a tendency to………………
It would seem that/appear that………….
The majority of……………….
e.g. Recent research suggests that a majority of people prefer to book a holiday which is organized, and where they do not have to make any decisions
B
e
precise and specific
Specific terminology in your subject is important, and even more important is your ability to explain these terms to a non-expert in your field. From the beginning you should think in terms of writing for the ‘educated’ reader, a non-expert in your field
Build up your own glossary
Develop a list of ‘power’ words e.g. a controversial idea is much more powerful than a different idea
Edit your own work carefully, and even better get someone else to read it
Support your ideas with specific examples and as far as possible let other people read your work
Task 2. Reporting verbs: Significance
Reporting verbs are widely used in academic writing, and can make a considerable contribution in demonstrating your stance and your analytical skills. You can choose to use some information from a text, and show clearly what you think about it from your choice of reporting verb.
2.1 Look at the example below; in which sentence does the writer appear to support the author’s view. And in which sentence does s/he seem to think it is not a valid view?
McKeever clearly demonstrates that it is not the number of hours spent studying that guarantees success, but rather the strategies that students use.
Quinn claims that it is not the number of hours that students spend studying that guarantees success, rather the strategies they use.
Reporting verbs are also an important element of academic style, as you will be using them throughout your word, whether in summarizing, paraphrasing, or synthesizing ideas and in developing an argument. You have done some work on these in Unit 4, but will need to continue to develop your range of reporting verbs throughout your academic career. This stage will introduce you to more of the most common reporting verbs + that and show how you can use them to communicate your opinion about the sources more accurately.
Source: Adapted from Vicary, A. (2012) Forthcoming publication, Grammar for Writing. Reading: Garnet Education
Task 3. Reporting verbs + that
As you read academic texts in your subject area, notice the reporting verbs + that which are most commonly used. Make a list of them and try and use them in the correct context in your writing too.
Study the essay extracts a-d below.
Underline the five reporting verbs + that.
Which tenses are used in front of one of the reporting verbs for emphasis?
Which adverbs are used to emphasis the statement?
Leki (1990, p. 60) found that(1) there was ‘depressingly little evidence’ in both L1 and L2 research that teacher feedback could lead to improvements.
Cohen and Cavalcanti’s (1990) research confirmed that(2) instances of teacher bias were apparent in feedback. Difficult pupils seemed to receive more negative feedback comments than others whose behavior was more attentive in class.
Kando (1997) strongly believed that (3) old age was a time of decline, and that older people were less physically active and able and, therefore, required less housing space. However, Groc (2008) argues that many older people are also carers and the first US housing facility for older people who look after grandchildren or other dependants has just been built in New York City
Harding (2007) and Lansely et al., (2004) point out that even single older adults make extensive use of their rooms for family visits, leisure and other activities and they may also need room for a live-in carer or aids and adaptations.
Task 4. Tense of reporting verbs
Not that the simple present tense can be used even if the source cited was published some years also. This shows that the views of the author are still valid; they have not been disproved by subsequent research, in addition, the present perfect can be used to describe the result now of an activity in the past.
Choose the correct verb from the two given to compete the sentences in the boxes. Be careful to choose either the present or past simple.
Calculate/estimate
Brown (2004, p. 56) ____________ that ‘the number of storm days per month during the winter increased from 7 to 14 in 2003’.
Predictions are often inaccurate, but the IPPC (2003) ____________ that the increase in the Earth;s average surface temperature relative to 1991 will be within the range of 1° to 3.5° C by the year 2100.
Mention/emphasis
Seacott’s research (2008) ____________ that the three main indicators of global warming are temperature, precipitation and sea level.
In his introduction to the subject, Brown (2003) only briefly _____________ that the local innovation projects in Uganda had not been successful.
Agree/disagree
Smith (2001) states that there is strong evidence that global warming is increasing, and Jones (2002) clearly __________ that this is highly likely.
Smith (2001) states that there is compelling evidence that global warming is increasing, but Sutton (2002) strongly ___________ that this is the case.
Claim/maintain
According to Maslin (2004), the climate change expert, skeptics falsely ________ that every data set showing global warming has been corrected or adjusted to achieve a desired result.
Maslin (2005) impressively _____________that this fact is itself part of the scientific process, whereby knowledge and understanding moves forward incrementally.
Hypothesise/explain
In the 1980s, early scientists such as Arrhenius and Chamberlin __________ that ‘human’ activity could substantially warm the Earth by adding carbon dioxide to the atmosphere’ (Faulkner, 2000:197). However, it was only in the 1940s and 1950s that modern technology was able to show that this was indeed the case.
Smith (1997)_______ that the experiment was fundamentally flawed; this view is now open to dispute.
Assert/deny
De Witt (2010) rightly ___________ that one of the major obstacles to dealing with the problem of climate change is cost, or more importantly, perception of cost. Indeed, it may cost as much 2% of world GDP.
Salvesen (2011) ____________ that the experiment had been a failure.
Task 5. Attitude and reporting verbs
Each reporting verb has a different meaning, which allows the writer to express their stance, or viewpoint.
Refer to the reporting verbs used in the previous exercise. Write the reporting verb + that in the right-hand column to match the writer’s attitude to the source in the left-hand column:
-
The writer thinks that the author:
Reporting verb used:
Strongly expresses a belief
State that something is true, although it may not have been proved
Guesses by using available evidence
Said that something was not true
Makes it clear that he has a different opinion/idea (from someone else)
Wrote about something quickly without giving details
Found out for certain by using numerical data
Makes it clear that he has the same opinion/idea (as someone else)
States forcefully that something is true
Put forward an idea based on known facts, which were then used as a basis for further investigation
Gave details about how or why something worked
Stresses that an idea is important
Self-work task
Make a short summary of the topic “People in History”.
Unit 12. Academic Style and Writing Conclusions (part 2)
analyze the features of definitions
analyze the features of conclusions
Listening: Marion Grussendorf “English for Presentation”, Oxford University Press, 2007 Ex.6 p.45
Task 1. Features of definitions.
When writing about a topic, it is essential to clarify your terms. i.e., to explain clearly what you mean by key words in the essay.
WRITING EXTENDED DEFINITIONS (1)
If you were wгiting about hurmаn resource mаnаgеmеnt, fог example, уоu would need to explain what уоu mеаnt bу humап resources, so that both thе writеr апd the rеаdеr hаvе exactly the same iпtегрrеtаtiоn of thе term. You will оftеn find that definitions from at least part оf thе intrоduсtогу texts to уоur subjectаrеа.
Тhе extent to whiсh уоu nееd to define уоur tеrms will depend on уоur rеаdеr and уоur purpose fоr writing. Fоr example, if уоu аrе new to the subject area then will need to clarify some of the most basic terms, for yourself (as well as, perhaps, your tutor). As you gain а deeper knowledge and understanding оf the subject, and уоu аге writing fоr specialists, thе mеаning of сеrtаiп key tеrms can be assumed as a part of shаrеd knowledge.
Study the Definitions 1-2, which have been taken from the projects of students. Identify the features of the definitions from 1-2 below:
A formal definition, e.g., from a dictionary or an expert in the field
An expansion of the definition with an explanation and/or example
A comment on the definition by the writer
References
Definition 1: Language aptitude
Some people have a nature language ability, which makes them adept at learning foreign languages, whereas others are rather poor at this and struggle to acquire a basic communicative ability in the language. A factor that makes a difference to the individual is often referred to as language aptitude. Although difficult to define in concrete terms, it is understood to be not necessary the ability to learn the language in the classroom, but rather to be able to apply this knowledge in a real-life situation (Cook, 1991). While some people argue that this ability is not fixed, Carroll (1981) believes that aptitude is an innate or stable factor, which cannot be changed through training and is constant throughout one’s life. He also insists that is it not related to past learning experience. This implies that language aptitude is not something that is accumulated as we age, but something we are born with. This may sound demotivating for those who are not equipped with language aptitude. However, as Ellis (1994) suggests, aptitude is only a facilitator which encourages learning, especially in accelerating the rate of learning, but does not determine learning.
Definition 2: Critical thinking
As the importance of critical thinking has become widely accepted, scholars and theorists have attempted to establish a clear definition. Critical thinking can be traced back more than 2500 years to Socrates’ time. Paul, Elder, and Bartell (1997) explained that it was originally defined as a method for arriving at the truth and analyzing complex ideas. This method of questioning, now known as ‘Socratic questioning’, is a series of questions about a certain issue used to investigate that issue by applying logical points of view.
However, the actual term ‘critical thinking’ only emerged in the 20th century. Renaud and Murray (2008) then assembled several popular definitions of critical thinking (e.g., Ennis, 1985; Furedy and Furedy, 1984; Pascarella and Terenzini, 2005; Watson and Glaser, 1980) which contain the following five common elements: identifying central issues and assumptions, making correct inferences from data, deducting conclusions from data provided, interpreting whether conclusions are warranted, and evaluating evidence or authority. Other elements of critical thinking include: making a statement or argument supported with evidence (Beyer, 1987), recognizing important relationships (Ennis, 1985; Furedy and Furedy, 1984; Pascarella and Terenzini, 2005), defining a problem (Dressel and Mayhew, 1954; Ennis, 1985), and forming relevant hypothese (Dressel and Mayhew, 1954; Ennis, 1985).
Despite this range, one of the definitions of critical thinking which is extensively accepted and frequently cited in academic works comes from the work of Michael Scriven and Richard Paul.
Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action. (Scriven and Paul, 1987, p. 5)
1.2 Now complete the table below by ticking (V) the appropriate cells.
Feature |
1 |
2 |
a formal definition, e.g., from a dictionary or an expert in the field |
|
|
an expansion of the definition with an explanation and/or examples |
|
|
a comment on the definition by the writer |
|
|
References |
|
|
Task 2. Features of conclusions
-
Writing conclusions
Thе conclusion at the end оf уоur essay sеrvеs а numbеr of functions:
- It is thе finаl раrt оf уоur text and so needs to рull together all the mаin ideas.
- It should rеfеr back tо what you outlined in уоur introduction and to уоur thesis statement.
- It is аn opportunity to show thе extent to which уоu hаvе been to deal with thе
issues involved in уоur thesis statement.
Just like intrоdцсtiоns, conclusions саn hаvе а numbеr of features:
1. а logical conclusion that is evident frоm thе development of the ideas in уоur essay, as well as а briеf summаrу of the main ideas in the essay
2. comments оп these ideas
3. pгedictions fоr futurе developments in the topic аrеа оr statement of furthеr rеsеаrсh thаt might bе rеquiгеd
4. а statement of thе limitations оf thе wоrk соvеrеd bу уоur essay
5. а rеfеrеnсе back to thе thesis statement first mentioned in the intrоduсtiоn
Study the example conclusion below from the project of a student. Complete column 1 of the table below and on page 56 with the features 1-7 below.
further research suggestions 2 limitations 3. comments on ideas 4. logical conclusion 5. predictions 6. brief summary 7. reference to thesis statement
Example
-
To what extent is bank borrowing the best choice for small and medium-sized enterprises raising funds in Vietnam?
This project has examined how the development of small and medium-sized businesses in the economic sector partly depends on financial management and financial decisions where choosing a suitable method to raise funds is crucial. The importance of a clear financial plan, understanding financial situations, and clarifying the advantages and disadvantage of each method has been discussed. Although there are a number of methods in capital markets for raising funds, borrowing from banks seems to be the best choice for small and medium-sized enterprises that want to expand. Despite the disadvantage of bank borrowing with high interest rates, and limits of borrowing, this essay has shown how bank borrowing is suitable for the business environment in Vietnam. This is because many businesses are family-run, with lack of management experience, but also because interest charges are deductible for such companies. The same lack of experience would make it difficult to venture into new capital markets, and currently, at least, bank loans are the most appropriate source of funding. As experience grows, however, and the depth of knowledge increases, it is important for these companies to consider other possible financial options.
Feature |
Relevant section of text |
_______________________________
_______________________________ |
Although there are a number of methods in capital markets for raising funds, borrowing from banks seems to be the best choice for small and medium-sized enterprises that want to expand. |
_______________________________
_______________________________ |
This project has examined how the development of small and medium-sized businesses in the economic sector partly depends on financial management and financial decisions where choosing a suitable method to raise funds is crucial. The importance of a clear financial plan, understanding financial situations, and clarifying the advantages and disadvantage of each method has been discussed. |
______________________________
______________________________ |
(….this essay has shown how bank borrowing is suitable for the business environment in Vietnam. This is because many businesses are family-run, with lack of management experience, but also because interest charges are deductible for such companies. The same lack of experience would make it difficult to venture into new capital markets, and currently, at least, bank loans are the most appropriate source of funding. |
|
As experience grows, however, and the depth of knowledge increases, it is important for these companies to consider other possible financial options. |
|
Not included |
|
Not included |
____________________________ |
… this essay has shown how bank borrowing is suitable for the business environment in Vietnam. |
Conclusions 1-4 are also taken from the projects of students. They all contain some of the features, 1-7, in the list on page 55. Identify and highlight features from the list. Then write the numbers 1-7 in the margin beside the appropriate feature.
Conclusion 1
What role does the real estate property market play in the economy?
This essay has shown that the real estate market has different functions depending on whether the country involved has either a developing or developed economy. In general, real estate property is a national asset, and the real estate market is indispensable for national economic development. In China, where the real estate market is immature but growing rapidly, the national economy is more dependent on this market with its potential for employment, and possibility of attracting capital. In this situation, and ultimately as the Chinese government is the largest investor, the real estate market can be considered the engine of change. In contrast, the real estate market in the USA is mature, involved in many sections of the economy, and individuals are the largest investors. It remains to be seen whether the development of the Chinese economy will have a significant impact on the real estate market, creating a situation more similar to that of the American model.
Source: Edited extract from authentic student material.
Conclusion 2
A discussion of how green buildings can be both environmentally friendly and a profitable venture
Ways of decreasing the impact of construction on the environment have been analyzed, and the way in which these solutions can result, to some extent, in higher profits for their investors has been explained. It is suggested that green buildings can create additional value for the investor, since they reduce maintenance costs and thus increase profitability. Although only the use of solar energy for heating and light has been analyzed, it has been demonstrated how this usage can diminish the impact of building activities on the environment, and increase the profits for investors. However, this cannot be a global solution, since its effectiveness is restricted to sites with sufficient intense sunlight. In other areas, the re-use of ‘grey’ water and the harvesting of rainwater are alternative environmentally friendly solutions even though the high cost of drinkable water decreases its feasibility as a profitable venture. Nonetheless, should these techniques become widely used, and other cheaper solutions evolve, green buildings might indeed become both a totally environmentally friendly and a profitable solution.
Source: Edited extract from authentic student material
Conclusion 3
Developing customer loyalty: Current strategies and their effectiveness
Customer loyalty is essential for the future of firms, and companies need to develop different marketing strategies in order to create long-term loyalty. Both indirect methods, which are concerned with the image of the company, and direct methods, which emphasize the product, goods or service, are identified as possible strategies. Although both methods work well in theory, in practice it is shown that indirect methods are more efficient, and can provide a deeper loyalty, mainly based on trust and customer care. As indicated, the IKEA model evidence of how a trained staff member can retain a customer’s loyalty, even in different cultural situations.
In contrast, direct methods often create ‘false’ loyalty, which may be useful only in the short term. Furthermore, building loyalty is not guaranteed with this approach, and sometimes there are huge drawbacks. Thus, if the marketing plan is not well thought out and executed, companies may waste money in useless reward programmes. Many approaches used in recent years have shown that customers have individual personalities and gifts are not a sufficient general means of ensuring loyalty. Even though direct methods have some drawbacks, they can be useful, at least whilst the company is building a better option. As Riechheld’s research demonstrates, the best way to guarantee a company’s future is to build a better corporate and brand image, which shows the strengths of the company, without gimmicks.
Source: Edited extract from authentic student material.
Conclusion 4
The problem of overfishing in the great lakes of developing African countries and a review of current policy
This essay has shown that in order to reduce or eliminate the overfishing problem in developing East African countries, current policy needs to be reviewed to include a precautionary approach in rectifying the drastic depletion of fishing stock. This approach should address issues such as the stakeholders’ future position if restrictions such as quota fishing and closed season fishing are imposed. It would also be significantly more effective if other alternatives for obtaining fish for local industry would still get raw fish material for the factories and hence continue to meet its fish market demand. This would also ensure that local communities could generate sufficient income for their needs. Eventually, this approach would reduce the fishing pressure on inland waterways and eliminate the overfishing problem in the region.
Source: Edited extract from authentic student material.
2.3 Discuss your analysis of the conclusions in small groups.
2.4 Complete the summary table by ticking (٧) the appropriate columns.
Summary table
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Feature
Conclusion 1
Conclusion 2
Conclusion 3
Conclusion 4
logical conclusion
brief summary
comments on ideas
Predictions
further research suggestions
Limitations
reference to thesis statement
Task 3. Analyzing your conclusion
3.1 Look at the conclusion of your own project. Which of the features from
the table below can you identify? Place tick (٧) in the appropriate row.
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Feature
My project
My partner’s project
logical conclusion
brief summary
comments on ideas
Predictions
Task 4. The language of conclusions
4.1 Look again at Conclusions 1-4 on pages 56-58. Underline any expressions or phrases you think might be useful in your own academic writing.
Conclusion 2
Ways of decreasing the impact of construction on the environment have been analyzed, and the way in which these solutions can result, to some extent, in higher profits for their investors has been explained.
Unit summary
Mark a-k with either FI for features of introductions, or FC for features of conclusions.
background information about the topic __
b. brief summary of the main ideas in the essay and comments on these __
c. justification for the choice of topic focus __
d. predictions for future developments __
e. mention of further research that might bе rеquirеd __
f. аn outline of the structure of the essay __
g. definition of key terms related to the topic __
h. limitations of the wоrk covered bу the essay ___
i. the thesis statement (the writer's viewpoint оr perspective) __
j. the writer's purpose in producing the essay __
k. а rеfеrеnсе back to the thesis statement __
2. Mark each of the features above as follows.
٧ l used this in my project and think l used it well.
? l used this in my project, but l don't think l used it very well.
x I didn’t use this in my project
Self-work task
Make a short summary of the topic “People in History”.
Unit 13. Presentation skills
In this unit you will:
learn about general presentation skills (strategy and techniques)
learn to outline and organize your presentation (strategy and techniques)
Listening: Marion Grussendorf “English for Presentation”, Oxford University Press, 2007 Ex 1-2 p.11-12
Warm up
Are these statements true or false? Put a T (true) or an F (false) in the blank next to each statement.
It’s ok to stand with one hand in your pocket while presenting.
You should memorize your presentation.
You should look at people’s eyes most of the time you are speaking.
You apologize for your English skills before or during your presentation.
The more Power Point slides you use, the more impressed the audience will be.
Find out as much as possible about the audience before you present.
Use your Power Point slides to help you remember your main points.
Focus your eye contact on the most important audience members.
It’s not necessary to prepare for the Q&A session that usually follows a presentation.
Holding your hands together in front of you or behind your back shows the audience that you feel relaxed.
Do not speak while your back is to the audience.
The more body language you use, the more effective your presentation will be.
Use small cards for notes, rather than large pieces of paper.
It’s okay to repeat information during a presentation.
Separate your presentation into a clear introduction, body, and conclusion.
General skills: Strategy and Techniques
Think: What’s my subject?
Why am I giving this presentation? What’s my purpose?
Who is my audience? Find out as much as you can about them: for example, how many people will attend, what they do, who they represent and why they’re interested in the subject.
Task 1
You’ll be given two situations to present. Choose one of them and try to analyze subject, audience, and purpose.
Situation 1
You have been selected to take part in a six - month faculty exchange program with New York University in the USA. The Department Head in your field of studies at NYU, Dr.Wilson, has asked you to prepare and give a five - minute presentation the day after you arrive in NY.
Dr. Wilson would like you to introduce yourself, describe your research interests, what you hope to learn, and what you hope to contribute to the NYC community. In addition to Dr. Wilson, 12 faculty members of the department will be attendance. Also attending will be representatives from Human Resources, the Office of International Affairs, the Public Relations Department and the student newspaper.
Situation 2
Your university has hired 20 Visiting Faculty members for the upcoming year. The University Rector has asked you to conduct a special orientation presentation for the group to acquaint them with life in Astana.
The visiting professors represent several different academic disciplines and are from France, Europe, the United States, and Asia. They range from 27 to 65. Nine of them are women. Half of the group are married and will send for their spouses and children as soon as they have settled in. Only a few speak enough Kazakh or Russian to communicate effectively, but they are all fluent English speakers.
The rector considers it very important that the visiting faculty adjust quickly and smoothly to life in Kazakhstan. Naturally, he wishes them to begin their stay with a favorable impression. He, along with several Department Heads, will attend the presentation.
Prepare a five minute talk to give to the international visitors.
Task 2
Prepare a five minute presentation on any topic you wish to speak. Choose a topic that you are enthusiastic and you are familiar with and you think you will entertain or educate your audience. Before you prepare your presentation give this information your classmates so they can better evaluate your talk.
(Ss fill in the following information and prepare for their small presentations)
Student Name |
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Subject |
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Audience |
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Purpose |
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Outline and organization: Strategy and Techniques
Introduction
Body
Conclusion
Presentation Skills: Language Worksheet
Introduction – Starting:
Good morning (Good evening, Good afternoon)
My name is ________________. I’m ___________________.
This morning (This afternoon, This evening, Tonight, Today) …..
I’d like to explain ….
I’d like to begin by discussing ….
I’m going to talk about ….
My point is …
I will look at this from three points of view: first, …; next, ….; and finally, …
In the first part of my presentation, I’ll describe….
After that I will explain….
Finally, I’ll show you ….
Body – Explaining points/ Using connecting words
First, I’d like to talk about …
Now, I’d like to move on to …
Next, let me describe…
The next point I’ll discuss is …
This means …
This is supported by …
According to ….
Finally, let me explain….
For example, …. For instance, ….
First, … second, … third, … last, …
Another, … In addition, … Moreover, .. Nevertheless,… but … yet…
Since …. Because…
Therefore, … Thus, …. Because of … Due to …So, …
Similar to … Similarly, … like… the same as … equal to … in comparison, …compared to …
In contrast, … different from … differs from…
Conlusion – Ending:
In conclusion (In summary(, I’ve talked about (discussed) ….
To conclude (To summarize), I’ve explained (shown) …
My main point was … My (three) main points were …
In my opinion, … Therefore (So), I feel (believe, think, recommend, suggest)…
Thank you for your attention.
Effective openings
Communication experts are agreed that the first three minutes of a presentation are the most important. They talk about ‘hooks’ – simple techniques for getting the immediate attention of the audience. A good start makes you feel more confident.
Task 3 Ss will be given some topics to try to start their presentations.
1. Kazakhstan education system should be improved.
2. EXPO benefits for Kazakhstan.
3. Great scholars of 20 th century.
Here’s how the experts suggest you ‘hook’ your audience:
Give them a problem to think about.
Give them some amazing facts.
Give them a story or personal anecdote.
Task 4
Look at the presentation openings below and divide them under three headings:
Problems |
Amazing Facts
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Stories |
Did you know that Japanese companies spend four times more on entertaining clients in a year than the entire GDP of Bulgaria? 40 billion dollars, to be precise. You know, that’s twice Colombia’s total foreign debt. You could buy General Motors for the same money.
Suppose your advertising budget was cut by 99 % tomorrow. How would you go about promoting your product?
According to the latest study, by 2050 only one in every four people in Western Europe will be going to work. And two will be old age pensions.
The following frames will help you prepare effective openings, using the problem, facts, or story technique. You should always know exactly how you are going to start.
Problem Technique
Suppose ……… How would you ……
Have you ever wondered why it is that …….. ?
How many people here this morning/afternoon/ evening ….. well, imagine … Do you think that’s possible?
Amazing facts technique
Did you know that…
According to the latest study, …
Statistics show that…..
I read somewhere the other day that ….
Story / Anecdote Technique
You know, ……. When I think about ……I’m reminded of ….
Have you ever been in the situation where … I remember …. It turned out …
Task 5
Using the frames try to prepare openings for your presentations. You may choose the topic that you have takes before.
Home assignment
Ss should prepare a small presentation according to the table using Appendix 4. Presentation Skills Workshop: Additional Resources
Self-work task
Make a short summary of the topic “Modern communications technologies”.
Unit 14 Preparing for conference presentation (Using Visual Aids: Strategy and Techniques)
In this unit you will:
learn about visual aids (strategy and techniques)
learn to use visual aids in your presentation (strategy and techniques)
Listening: Marion Grussendorf “English for Presentation”, Oxford University Press, 2007 Ex.1-2 p. 23-24
Warm up
Postgraduates should call out the names of different charts and graphs according to the pictures.
Pie chart Bar chart Table graph
Histogram Cross section flowchart Table
Types of diagrams
Diagrams are visual ways of presenting data concisely. They are often also called figures. In an academic article they are usually labelled Fig. (Figure) 1, Fig.2, etc.
A pie chart is a circle divided into segments from the middle (like slices of a cake) to show how the total is divided up. A key or legend shows what each segment represents.
A bar chart is a diagram in which different amounts are represented by thin vertical or horizontal bars chart but the bar width also varies to indicate different values.
A table is a grid with columns and rows of numbers.
A cross – section is something, or a model of something, cut across the middle so that you can see the inside. A label gives the name of each part of the cross section.
A flow chart is a diagram, which indicates the stages of a process.
A graph
The graph presents data relating to teenagers and pocket money. A random sample of 1000 teenagers were surveyed and the average pocket money received at each age has been plotted on the graph. The x axis or horizontal axis indicates age and the y axis or vertical axis shows the amount of money received per week. The graph shows that 15 year – olds receive twice as much pocket money as 13 –year-olds. From the graph we can see that the amount received reaches a peak at the age of 18 and then starts to decline. This decline can perhaps be explained by the fact that many teenagers start earning and stop receiving pocket money at the age of 18.
Graphs are drawn by plotting points on them and then drawing a line to join adjacent points. If there are two lines on a graph – separate lines, for example, to indicate boys’ and girls’ pocket money – then the lines would probably cross or intersect at various points. Lines that run parallel to one another never intersect.
Graphs show how numbers increase or decrease. The nouns increase and decrease have the stress on the first syllable, but the verbs have the stress on the second syllable. Numbers can also be said to rise or grow and fall, drop or decline. The nouns rise, growth, fall, drop and decline, like increase and decrease are followed by in (to explain the size of the change), e.g include a rise of 10% in the number of cars. Other verbs used about growth include double, multiply, appreciate and exceed.
Task 1
Answer the questions:
Draw examples of a pie chart and bar chart.
What would be the best type of diagram to present the different layers of rock in the Grand Canyon?
In a table, what is the difference between columns and rows?
What would be the best tyoe of diagram to present the different stages in a research project you did?
How many segments are there in the pie chart?
If you look at two adjacent columns in a table, are they next to each other or separated?
What is another name for a legend in a diagram?
What type of data collection are you doing if you survey the first 50 people you come across?
What do two lines on a graph do if they intersect and they run parallel to each other?
T
ask
2
Make the rather informal words in bold sound more precise and academic.
The different bits of the pie chart show the numbers of people in each age group.
She kept a record by marking the midday temperature on a graph for a month.
People’s salaries usually reach their highest point when they are in their late 40s.
This flowchart shows the different bits of our project over the next five years.
The two lines on the graph cross each other at point A.
Draw a line connecting the points that are next to each other.
The government’s popularity in the opinion polls is beginning to fall.
If you look along the top line of the table you can see the figures for the 1950s.
Task 3 Change the sentences using words with the same meanings as the words in bold.
Populations of some bird species in South Asia have crashed by 97% in recent years. The number of cases of death by poisoning has increased sharply.
In 2007 the child mortality rate was lower than 60 deaths per 1000.
The average family car in the UK goes down in value by 20% per year. This means its value has fallen by more than half after just three years.
A typical piece of land on the edge of the city will go up in value by 15 % per year, and house prices have gone up rapidly in the last six months.
Business courses have increased greatly in number while science programmes have gone down.
The temperature was higher than 45 in some parts of the country during the heatwave.
Between 1983 and 2006, the number of this species of condor went up from 22 pairs to 273. Other bird populations have gone up by two times in the same period.
The numbers of old soldiers attending regimental reunions are becoming smaller each year.
Self - work Task
Postgraduates should prepare any kind of chart on their research field and describe it.
Unit 15. Review
In this unit you will:
to present a presentation using the studied material in your field
write an essay / project in your field, which will be as admission to the your examination.
do some review exercises
Can you develop thesis statements for the following topics? Remember to decide on the focus of the topic trying to write the thesis statement, and to show your position or opinion about the topic.
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Global warming
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Smoking
Using rules from the given Units and Appendix 3 analyze the following sentences. How can they be improved?
And German National Tourist Board GNTB (2011) climes that the Germany the second most travel destination countries by European tourist in 2010.
Tourist expenditures increase tourism revenue in the region, which in turn leads to a chain reaction: flow-income-consumption, etc.
Today, Spain receives more than 55 million tourists per year. This means that there are good conditions to economy and industry developing.
Hence, the disadvantages of tourism is may be fewer than those in the developing countries but they need a pick-me-up solutions.
A lot of people wish to enjoy the beauty of the most famous paintings of Leonardo da Vinci “Mona Lisa”
Moreover, the effect of tourism in Italy does not exclude negative impacts like overdevelopment, lack of authentic construction and the displacement of local residents.
Local communities are benefited through contribution be tourism to the improvement of the social infrastructure like, libraries, health care institutions, internet cafes, and so on. Schools
It seems that tourism is a business that will increase indirectly other sections in the country and this is for the local benefit. Such as transportation system, hospital capacities, hotel and food quality.
Complete the commentary with the following words.
Vertical, indicates, varied, graphic, explained, fact, decline, a peak, legend, horizontal, reached
The chart ….. the number of cars entering the downtown area of West City each day over an eight year period. The totals are listed on the …. axis, while the years are listed on the ….. axis. To the right of the graph we see the ….. The number of cars …. over the period. The total rose in the first few years and …. …. in year 5, after which the numbers started to …. . This can be …. by the …. that a new mass transit railway was opened in year 6, which is a … illustration of how good public transport can dramatically affect car use.
Self-work task
Make a short summary of the topic “Looking to the Future”.
Appendices
Appendix 1: Sample project
University of Reading
Pre-sessional Course Block 4
September 2008
To what extent should insider dealing be regulated, and how can this be done effectively?
Name: Mansoor Alhagbani
Date: 19 September 2008
Abstract
Insider dealing is considered a financial crime in many countries. This criminalization of insider dealing is recent and regulators have been struggling to control it, as it is a complex situation. Furthermore, regulating insider dealing has never gained a consensus, as many economists and lawyers think it should not be regulated. This paper tries to analyze this activity from different perspectives, by first defining insider dealing and looking at how it happens. Then the argument for legalizing insider dealing is analyzed, and a discussion about why it is flawed is presented. Finally, this paper suggests that a proactive approach is the most effective way to regulate insider dealing.
Introduction
Financial markets in many countries such as the UK, USA and Saudi Arabia constitute an integral part of the domestic economy and help create a sound market. This task requires providing a market where efficiency and market integrity are dominant characteristics. In other words, in order to have an attractive market, where shares are traded, the performance of companies that should be reflected are quoted in it. Wrongdoing in general is a stumbling block to ensuring an efficient market. It is the job of regulatory bodies to eliminate such obstacles. However, some forms of wrongdoing are difficult to combat, not to mention the opposition against criminalizing them. Insider dealing is such a subject. Suter considers insider dealing one of the most challenging topics that have been encountered by legislators (Suter, 1989, p. 1). This may be due to two main reasons. First, the opposition against regulating insider dealing. There are many economists and lawyers who advocate deregulated insider dealing for many reasons that will be dealt with in more depth later on this essay. Moreover, if the battle over regulating insider trading is won by those who are in favour of regaling it, there will be another issue, which is the difficulty, although not an impossibility, of imposing effective regulation due to the complexity of the controversial crime. Nevertheless, all forms of insider dealing should be regulated. A possible way of doing this effectively may be through a proactive approach. This essay will first define insider dealing and examine when it is committed. Secondly, it will look at the argument against regulating insider dealing and why this is inadequate. Finally, it will discuss how insider dealing could be regulated effectively by taking a proactive approach.
Definition
The definition of insider dealing is absolutely vital as an inadequate definition may create a loophole through which the crime might be committed without, if proved, successful prosecution. The ‘traditional view’ of insider dealing is defined by Hannibal as ‘the use by an insider of price-sensitive information (known to him but not generally and which he has acquired by virtue of his position) to trade to his advantage in the shares of a company’ (McVea, 1993, p.42). The ‘insider’ in this definition is someone who is likely to come across information (as part of his/her job) that is not known by the public. This information has to be price-sensitive, which means that once it is made public it is likely to provoke a movement in the price of certain shares (McVea, 1993). However, this definition, if not complemented by other rules, will be flawed from a legal viewpoint. This is true as the definition merely covers the deal when it is traded to the insider’s advantage. The insider can easily avoid this by passing the confidential information to a relative such as his wife, or even more cautiously, the insider may recommend his wife to buy or sell in particular shares without revealing the information. In this case, and according to that definition, a crime is not constituted, despite an advantage being gained from the confidential information. Therefore, the definition that will be used to criminalize insider dealing has to cover all possible forms of abusing confidential price-sensitive information, or alternatively complemented by additional rules. For example, in the UK, the CSA Act 1985, amended by the FSA 1986, does not define insider trading, yet the Act differentiates between direct insider dealing, mentioned in the definition above, and indirect or ‘secondary’ insider dealing (ibid., p. 69). The latter criminalizes the incident in which an insider makes recommendations, based on confidential information, to another person to trade. Both of them will be liable for insider dealing if the recipient knows that recommendation is based on confidential information, and only the insider will be liable for the crime if the recipient does not know (ibid., p. 75). This approach ensures that all forms of abusing information will be considered as insider dealing. Nevertheless, it must be borne in mind that criminalizing an action does not mean prosecuting anyone who has carried it out, it means that anyone who carries it out will be prosecuted if there is sufficient evidence. It is this issue of evidence that makes insider dealing a difficult action to control.
Having clarified what insider dealing is and what elements constitute such an action, it is important to decide whether such an action should be considered a crime or not. In many countries, such as UK, the USA and Saudi Arabia , insider dealing is a financial crime. However, numerous lawyers and economists disapprove of this criminalizing of insider dealing. Their argument centres around three main justifications for insider dealing.
The economic benefit of insider trading
First, the economic benefit that insider trading brings about. Donald J. Boudreaux, a distinguished economist, claims that insider trading is beneficial in the sense that it gives an immediate reflection of the information generated by a certain company. He argues that when insiders of a company buy or sell shares in their company according to specific information, this implies to the public that some information is available, even before it is announced. In other words, if insiders start to buy shares, outsiders or other investors can anticipate that good news is about to be announced and therefore imitate the insiders in their actions (Boudreaux 2003). Marine, a very well-known lawyer who wrote a book in 1966 condemning the criminalization of insider dealing , agrees with Boudreaux on this point (McVea, 1993, p. 54). This view seems to ignore the fact that profiting in an efficient financial market should be based on the investors’ abilities to analyze information, not to imitate other traders while perhaps the information available to them suggests doing the contrary. McVea argues that the economic benefit argument is flawed in two ways; he asserts that such a phenomenon would encourage insiders to delay the announcement of the information as they accumulate quietly and leisurely, in order not to be noticed by outsiders, a vast number of stocks so when the information comes out the price soars (ibid., p. 54). He also argues that the price at such a stage would be an ‘artificial one’ and this is a ‘distortion’ of the market that will affect efficiency and dent public confidence (ibid., p. 55). Therefore, it seems that the economic argument for legalizing insider dealing provides no ground upon which insider dealing can be legitimized.
Insider trading as an incentive for workers
As well as the economic argument for legalizing insider trading, Marine put forward another argument, which is that insider dealing should be used as an incentive for the personnel of conglomerates (McVea, 1993, p. 51). He believes that since managers and directors contribute to a great extent to the increase of the organization’s wealth, salaries are not adequate to reward them. He therefore believes that they ought to be able to take advantage of the information that they exclusively possess to trade in the company’s shares (ibid.). Otherwise ‘innovation’, which increases profits and is essential to any company’s success, would not be encouraged and therefore the company would be worse off (ibid.). This scheme of rewarding managers and directors, although it will increase their income quite substantially, will not necessarily boost the company’s performance. An insider can make use of both good and bad news. Use can be made of the good news by buying, and of the bad news by selling. Here a manager will benefit from generating bad news to the company by avoiding loss (ibid., p. 52). This means creating a kind of rewarding scheme that is not ‘commensurate with effort’, which should be the basis of any rewarding scheme (ibid.). Furthermore, using trading upon insider dealing as a perk or a scheme of rewarding is extremely unfair. This can be seen when considering that confidential information is provided to an employee as a result of his or her position regardless of his/her contribution to this information. For example, a manager who has been performing very badly is likely to come across price-sensitive information and trade upon it. At the same time, another employee who has been performing extremely well may be unable to access the same information. This means that employees will be rewarded according to their position and regardless of their actual performance. Again and for the above reasons, Marine’s argument cannot justify legalizing insider dealing.
The ‘impossibility’ of effective regulation of insider trading
Finally, the advocates of unregulated insider dealing argue that insider dealing cannot be regulated properly and it is impossible to have effective regulation, thus it should not be regulated. Insider trading is a very complex crime and detecting it can be impossible in some cases. For example, the defendant can claim that they did not know that the information was price-sensitive or they may argue that they would have traded even if they had not known about the information (Cole, 2007). This makes successful prosecution extremely difficult. Margaret Cole (2007), the director of enforcement at the FSA, conceded that prosecuting an insider is extremely challenging. She stated that not only proving the elements of the crime is difficult, but also ‘the practical challenges of presenting complex insider dealing cases to a jury are immense’ (ibid.). However, while Marine sees this obstacle s a justification to legalize insider dealing, Margaret Cole does not. McVea (1993, p. 57) summarized Marine’s argument as ‘anti-insider dealing law is unenforceable; unenforceable law is a bad law; bad law should not be on the statute books’. Then McVea (ibid.) criticized Marine’s argument by stating that ‘partial enforcement’ on undesirable actions such as insider dealing is better than not having any restrictions. McVea’s argument seems to suggest that even if it is impossible to control insider dealing, it is still an immoral activity and regulators should not approve of it by not criminalizing it. Furthermore, despite being a really difficult crime to detect, insider trading can be tackled. This will not be achieved by the capacity to prosecute every insider, rather it may be accomplished through preventing insider trading from occurring. In other words, a proactive approach may well be the remedy to this obstacle.
A proactive approach
The introduction of a proactive approach aims to reduce the occurrence of insider dealing as much as possible. This can be achieved by restricting the flow of information between conglomerate departments. For example, information gained by the marketing division should not be passed on to the investment division. This restriction may have a negative effect on financial conglomerates as it will restrict the liaison between internal departments, but not to the extent that it should be abandoned (McVea, 1993, p. 350). Furthermore, this policy will be effective in terms of reducing insider dealing among financial conglomerates rather than all the quoted companies and individuals involved. This can be complemented by a more holistic approach which is forcing companies listed on the stock market to disclose all information once they gain it. This will eliminate the benefit of trading upon inside information as it will be known to the public immediately. Disclosure and transparency as two rules to which companies have to adhere are already imposed in many markets; however, not efficiently enough to eliminate the occurrence of insider dealing. Margaret Cole (2007), the director of enforcement at the FSA, asserts that the FSA ‘put a significant emphasis’ on proactive policies such as ensuring ‘a steady flow of information’. The FSA in this sense has accomplished encouraging results. Figures show that the level of undesirable activities, including insider dealing, plummeted from 19.6% in 1998-2000 to 2% in 2004-2005 (Cole, 2007). This reduction is clearly the result of the proactive measures. Yet, the figures also show no reduction in illegal activities when it comes to dealing upon information to do with mergers an acquisitions, and this is mainly due to the huge number of people involved in such a process, and therefore the higher likelihood of information leakage (ibid.). However, the FSA is working on coordinating between the different parties in order to overcome this issue. Despite this, the overall reduction shows that the FSA succeeded in preventing a great deal of insider dealing from taking place. This means that a proactive approach can be effective and Marine’s argument in this regard is no longer valid.
Conclusion
In conclusion, a perfect market where no kind of wrongdoing is taking place can be an unrealistic ambition. Nevertheless, market regulators ought to do their utmost in combating all forms of wrongdoing in order to provide the highest possible level of market integrity, which will attract investors from all over the world. Insider dealing as a form of wrongdoing, as previously mentioned, is rather controversial. Many lawyers and economists believe that insider dealing is efficient and beneficial not only for insiders, but also for outsiders. This argument was not compelling enough to persuade major economies such as the USA, UK and Japan to legalize the controversial crime. Rather, those countries and many others opted to fight insider trading and follow the argument that insider dealing is neither efficient nor beneficial for outsiders. When doing this, the supporters of legal insider trading believe that regulators and authorities will be spending a great deal of money and time in vain. They are convinced that even if insider trading were to be regulated, there are no means to combat it. This is mainly due to the complexity of this action and the elements that constitute it. However, although insider dealing is an extremely difficult action to detect, combating it can be achieved by preventing it. This approach has shown great results in the UK market. Yet this policy can be developed to be more effective and less harmful to companies, as they may be affected by the restricted liaison between different departments. In other words, a proactive approach is the right solution and regulators ought to work on improving this policy in terms of both preventing insider dealing and not affecting the performance of organizations. This task, despite being extremely difficult, has to be done, as regulators ought to do their utmost to provide the highest possible level of market integrity.
Bibliography
Boudreaux, D. J. (2003). Insider-trading prohibitions should go out of style. Retrieved August 28, 2008, from www.ff.org/comment/com0306fasp
Cole, M. (2007). Insider dealing in the city. Retrieved September 3, 2008, from www.fsa.gov.uk/pages/Library/Communication/Speeches/2007/0317mc.shtml McVea, H.(1993). Financial conglomerates and the Chinese Wall Regulation conflict of interest. Oxford: Claredon Press.
Suter, J. (1989). The regulation of insider dealing in Britain. London:Butterworths.
APPENDIX 2: Compiling a bibliography
Appendix 3: Self-evaluation checklist analyze the following sentences.
The work you do in this book, as well as on other aspects of your course, will help you develop these skills. Tick the appropriate box for each skill, according to how well you feel you can do this. From time to time, look again at this checklist and decide whether you have made progress with any of these skills.
Skills |
Do not know about this |
Find this difficult/cannot do this |
Can partially do this |
Can do this well |
Looking for information |
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Identify which books/journals/websites to use |
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Select relevant parts of a text |
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Evaluate sources |
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Using sources |
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Acknowledge sources of information |
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Synthesize information from more than one source |
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Write a bibliography correctly |
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Avoid plagiarism |
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Planning/Writing |
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Brainstorm ideas |
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Plan written work |
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Organize text |
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Link ideas effectively |
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Summarize ideas |
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Paraphrase ideas |
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Write an introduction |
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Write a conclusion |
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Critically edit written work |
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*You may not require all the skills mentioned – there is some variation from department to department
Skills |
Do not know about this |
Find this difficult/cannot do this |
Can partially do this |
Can do this well |
Personal study |
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Work independently |
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Manage time – meet deadlines |
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Oral expression |
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Give a presentation on my work |
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Discuss ideas for a project with other students |
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Discuss written work in a tutorial |
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Deal effectively with questions |
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IT |
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Access the Internet |
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Use search engines |
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Create word documents |
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Use PowerPoint |
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Organize text |
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Link ideas effectively |
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Summarize ideas |
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Paraphrase ideas |
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Write an introduction |
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Write a conclusion |
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Critically edit written work |
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REMEMBER – a skill improves with practice!
Appendix 4. Presentation Skills Workshop: Additional Resources
General
http://www3.imperial.ac.uk/graduateschool/currentstudents/onlineresources/presentationskills
Very useful videos based on the experience and advice of academics at Imperial
College in London.
http://wiki.ubc.ca/Presentation_Skills
www.ted.com
Wonderful resource for viewing presentations, which often include subtitles in a variety of languages and transcripts.
http://presentationexpressions.com
http://www.duarte.com/blog/
http://presentinenglish.com
Voice
http://library.leeds.ac.uk/tutorials/activities/presentations/voice-exercises/
Tips and Language
http://rasgas19febwiki.wikispaces.com/Presenting+in+English+by+Mark+Powell
http://www.it-sudparis.eu/lsh/ressources/Oral_Presentation_Skills.pdf
http://www.allaboutpresentations.com
http://www.slideshare.net once on site, search for presentation-related slide shows. Some are good; some are not.
Cross-cultural Communication Differences
http://platinum-training.jp/blog/?tag=cross-cultural-communications
Collection of Resources
http://www.mhhe.com/socscience/english/tc/pt/oral/resources2.htm
*Note: some of the links included are out of date.
http://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/ld/resources/presentation
Visuals
http://www.garrreynolds.com/preso-tips/design/
http://noteandpoint.com
http://www.sliderocket.com/blog/2010/08/incredible-presentations-presentation-methods