4. Factors used to classify cultures

a) descriptive factors (Gannon, Harris and Morran) – describe cultures by identifying metaphors that members of given societies vies as important, if not critical (e.g. famile structure, religion, eating habits...)

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Gannon focuses mostly on the expression of culture, among others religion, family structure, small group behavior, public behavior, leisure pursuits and interests, greeting behavior, humor, language etc. He provides a description of 16 cultures according to the following metaphors: the traditional British house, the Italian opera, the German symphony, the French wine, Turkish coffeehouse and so on…)

b) value categories (dimensions of national culture) (Hall, Hofstede, Hampden-Turner & Trompenaars) – represent specific conceptual taxonomies (ways of grouping things together) that are useful for understanding cultural differences.

Dimensions of national cultures according to Hofstede:

Individualism vs. collectivism: "The degree to which individuals are integrated into groups".

Power distance: "Power distance is the extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions (like the family) accept and expect that power is distributed unequally." 

Uncertainty avoidance: "a society's tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity".

Masculinity vs. femininity: "The distribution of emotional roles between the genders".

Long-/ short- term orientation.

Trompenaars' model of national culture differences:

1. Universalism vs. particularism (What is more important, rules or relationships?)

2. Individualism vs. collectivism (communitarianism) (Do we function in a group or as individuals?)

3. Neutral vs. emotional (Do we display our emotions?)

4. Specific vs. diffuse (How separate we keep our private and working lives)

5. Achievement vs. ascription (Do we have to prove ourselves to receive status or is it given to us?)

6. Time (Sequential vs. Synchronic) (Do we do things one at a time or several things at once?)

7. Environment (Internal vs. external control) (Do we control our environment or are we controlled by it?)

Hall:

Context (high-context, low-context)

Space (proxemies)

Time (polychronic, monohronic)

Information flow (direct, indirect)

5. Cultural dimensions

a) Edward Hall’s division of cultures:

1. context (high and law context)

• High context

In a high-context culture, there are many contextual elements that help people to understand the rules. As a result, much is taken for granted.

This can be very confusing for person who does not understand the 'unwritten rules' of the culture.

• Low context

In a low-context culture, very little is taken for granted. Whilst this means that more explanation is needed, it also means there is less chance of misunderstanding particularly when visitors are present.

• Contrasting the two

French contracts tend to be short (in physical length, not time duration) as much of the information is available within the high-context French culture. American content, on the other hand, is low-context and so contracts tend to be longer in order to explain the detail.

Highly mobile environments where people come and go need lower-context culture. With stable population, however, a higher context culture may develop.

Note the similarity with Trompenaars' Universalism (low context) and Particularism (high context).

 

2. space (the need for space, high territoriality, low territoriality,

and contrasting)

3. time :

• Monochronic time

M-Time, as he called it, means doing one thing at a time. It assumes careful planning and scheduling and is a familiar Western approach that appears in disciplines such as 'time management'.

Monochronic people tend also to be low context.

• Polychronic time

In Polychronic cultures, human interaction is valued over time and material things, leading to a lesser concern for 'getting things done' -- they do get done, but more in their own time.

Aboriginal and Native Americans have typical polychronic cultures, where 'talking stick' meetings can go on for as long as somebody has something to say.

Polychronic people tend also to be high context.

• Contrasting the two

Western cultures vary in their focus on monochronic or polychronic time. Americans are strongly monochronic whilst the French have a much greater polychronic tendency -- thus a French person may turn up to a meeting late and think nothing of it (much to the annoyance of a German or American co-worker).

4. information flow (direct/indirect communication)

b) Geert Hofstede’s model of five cultural dimensions:

1. Power Distance Index (PDI)

2. Individualism versus Collectivism (IDV)

3. Masculinity versus Femininity (MAS)

4. Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI)

5. Long Term Orientation versus Short Term Normative Orientation (LTO)

c) Trompenaars’s concept of culture:

Concept of culture is defined as a way in which a group of people solves problems and presents 7 values:

1. Universalism vs. particularism (What is more important, rules or relationships?)

2. Individualism vs. collectivism (communitarianism) (Do we function in a group or as individuals?)

3. Neutral vs. emotional (Do we display our emotions?)

4. Specific vs. diffuse (How separate we keep our private and working lives)

5. Achievement vs. ascription (Do we have to prove ourselves to receive status or is it given to us?)

6. Sequential vs. synchronic (Do we do things one at a time or several things at once?)

7. Internal vs. external control (Do we control our environment or are we controlled by it?)

d) 9 dimensions of cultural values as proposed in the GLOBE study:

1.Performance Orientation	4.Uncertainty Avoidance	7.Humane Orientation
2.Institutional Collectivism	5.In-Group Collectivism	8.Assertiveness
3.Gender Egalitarianism	6.Future Orientation	9.Power Distance
Globe Dimension	One Extreme	Other Extreme
Uncertainty avoidance	Need for established social norms, rituals, and practices	Comfortable with ambiguity and predictability
Power distance	Egalitarian and nonhierarchal	Hierarchy, authority, disparity in status and wealth
Institutional collectivism	Collective actions and sharing of resources encouraged	Individual actions and goals are encouraged
In-group collectivism	Expressions of pride, loyalty, and cohesion	Noncohesiveness, loyal to oneself and one’s needs
Gender egalitarianism	Nurture, care, relationships, sharing	Ambition, assertiveness, control
Assertiveness	Assertive, confrontational, and aggressive in social relationships	Timid, submissive, and tender in social relationships
Future orientation	Planning, investing, and delays of individual or collective gratification	Spontaneity, enjoying the present
Performance orientation	Encourages and rewards group performance and excellence	No rewards and encouragement for goals; more relaxed in terms of achievement
Humane orientation	Encourages and rewards individuals for being fair, altruistic, friendly, generous, caring	Concerns for self, not sensitive, not encouraging of social supports and community values