The Growth of National Consciousness

Rarely has there been a more exciting, varied, and widespread flowering of new ideas than in the 19^th century. By that time, the disengagement from the medieval belief that the world could be comprehended only in terms of God’s will, begun in the Renaissance, had long since been completed. Educated Europeans were secure in the conviction that the mind of man was fully capable of analyzing and guiding human life. This intellectual confidence led to an unprecedented growth of ideas and ideologies. Indeed, ideology – that is, a system of ideas that claims to explain the past and present world and to serve as a guide for a better life in future – emerged as a major historical force at this time.

Closely linked to these developments was the rise of intellectuals or intelligentsia, as the roughly analogous social group was called in Eastern Europe. As specialists in the formulation and propagation of ideas and the mobilization of people in behalf of these ideas, the intelligentsia would be in the forefront of political and cultural change in Eastern Europe. And one of the most gripping concepts developed by the intelligentsia during the 19^th century was that of nationhood. It was, as we shall see, a wholly new way not only of viewing society, but also of influencing its behavior. In Ukraine, as elsewhere in the world the rise of the concept of nationhood was an unmistakable indicator of approaching modernity, for with nationhood came ideas and causes that are still with us today.

Today nationhood is such a pervasive reality that it is difficult to imagine that in early 19^th-century Eastern Europe, and indeed, in much of the world, it was only a hazy, slowly unfolding notion. This not to say that premodern peoples were oblivious to ethnic differences. People always felt a close attachment to their homeland, language, customs, and traditions. But until relatively recently, ethnicity was not considered to be a primary basis for defining group identity. Legal and socioeconomic distinctions embodied in the feudal estate system, that is, distinctions within a people, were generally thought to be more significant than differences between peoples. In other words, a Ukrainian, Russian, or Polish nobleman believed that he had more in common with noblemen in other countries than with peasants or townsmen in his own land. Only in the 19^th century did a new concept of community – one based on common language and culture – begin to emerge. In Ukraine, as elsewhere, the evolution and slow dissemination of the idea of ethnically based nationhood would become one of the major themes of modern history.

It was the French Revolution, which reflected the disintegration of feudal society and the advent of a new, mass-based political and socioeconomic system, that helped this idea gain prominence. In its wake, growing numbers of Europeans accepted the ideas of individual rights and of sovereignty being vested in the people, not in their rulers. The common folk began to come into their own – and their speech, customs, and traditions also gained recognition. In fact, these latter elements became the key integrating factors in the creation of national consciousness.

The most persuasive argument for the importance of native languages and folklore was provided by the German philosopher Johann Herder. Reacting against the “lifelessness” of the impersonal imperial systems and the artificiality of the foreign languages and fashions that dominated royal courts and noble salons, Herder focused his attention on the ethnic culture of the peasantry. The noted historian Hans Kohn wrote: “Herder was the first to insist that human civilization lives not in its general and universal, but in its national and peculiar manifestations; each cultural manifestation must be original, but its originality is that of the national community and the national language. By nature and history men are above all members of the national community: only as such can they be really creative.” Among the intelligentsias of Eastern Europe, which was dominated completely by monolithic empires, Herder’s ideas found an especially appreciative response; and it was the intellectuals who would take the lead in developing and spreading the modern concept among East Europeans.

While the ways in which national consciousness developed in every society varied considerably, modern scholars have discerned three general and partly overlapping stages in the development of East European national movements. The initial phase, marked by a somewhat nostalgic mood, generally consisted of a small group of scholarly intellectuals collecting historical documents, folklore, and artifacts in the belief that the individuality of their people would soon disappear with the onslaught of imperial culture. The second or cultural phase usually witnessed the unexpected “rebirth” of vernacular languages and their increasing use in literary and educational activities. And the third or political stage was marked by the growth of nationally-based organizations and the formulation of nation-oriented demands that implied to a greater or lesser extent the desire for self-rule. As we shall see, the evolution of Ukrainian national consciousness fits well into this general pattern.

Task 2. Pronounce the words and learn their meanings:

Renaissance [rә’neisәns]	emerge [i’mәd ]
disengagement [disin’geid mәnt]	primary [‘praimәri]
medieval [medi’i:vel]	consciousness [‘kon∫әsnis]
ideology [aidi’olәd i]	appreciative [ә’pri:∫iәtiv]
guide [gaid]	concept [‘konsept]

Task 3. Give Ukrainian equivalents for the following word combinations and find the sentences with them in the text:

The gripping concept; until relatively recently; disintegration of feudal society; to take the lead in smth

Task 4. Give English equivalents for the following word combinations and find the sentences with them in the text:

Епоха Відродження; утвердитись у переконанні; рушійна сила історії; процес творення національної свідомості; прагнення до самоврядування.

Task 5. Explain word-building for:

Widespread; unprecedented; forefront; nationhood; unmistakable; townsmen; folklore; lifelessness

Task 6. Give synonyms for:

To complete; educated; way; notion; land

Task 7. Give antonyms for:

Rarely; change; reality; to gain; latter

Task 8. Find in the text some derivatives for “develop” and “origin” and give their translation.

Task 9. Translate the following word combinations with Participle I and make up your own sentences with them:

Exciting and flowering ideas; gripping concept; growing number(s); integrating factor(s); overlapping stages; increasing use

Task 10. Answer the following questions:

1. What is ideology?

2. What was the most gripping concept developed by the intelligentsia during the 19^th century?

3. What is the primary basis for defining group identity?

4. What elements became the key integrating factors in the creation of national consciousness?

5. What 3 phases in the development of East European national movements do you know?

Task 1. Read the text to yourself: