13.2. Function of sentence stress

Stresses in an utterance fulfill the same three functions as other components of prosody: constitutive, distinctive and identificatory.

In their constitutive function stresses form the utterance by integrating words. They form the accentual structure of the utterance, which is the basis of its rhythm and part of its prosodic structure. While integrating words into utterances, stresses of different hierarchy segment the speech into rhythmic units, intonation groups and delimit them one from another thus carrying out the segmentative functions. According to this function three types of sentence stress are distinguished: normal stress (unemphatic stress, sentence stress proper), logical stress, emphatic stress.

Normal stress is used to break up the connected speech into syntagms and to indicate the important words in syntagms.

Logical stress is used to bring into prominence a word or words which are important from the point of view of meaning or the speaker’s attitude to the subject discussed.

Emphatic stress is used to express emotions or to suggest to the listener some idea or some shade of meaning which is not expressed in words

The distinctive function of stresses manifests itself in differentiating utterances as to their meaning, which is conditioned by the position and type of stress. E.g. 'Don’t you 'find it /difficult? and 'Don’t /you find it difficult?

Intonation patterns differ primarily in respect to the position of the nucleus of the communicative center. The opposition of the intonation patterns is capable of fulfilling:

→ the syntactically distinctive function - the number of communicative centers indicates the number of intonation groups. In this case the opposition of intonation (accentuation) patterns fulfills this function.

(Do you know his schoolmate, | Harry?)

→ the semantically distinctive function – is realized in the opposition of different accentuation patterns:

You forget your"self (You neglect yourself).

You for"get yourself (Ты забываешься).

→ the attitudinally distinctive function – may be demonstrated by changing the accentuation pattern of the sentence.

What shall I do?

(If ‘shall’ is unaccented, it is an auxiliary verb – Что же делать? ; if it is the nucleus of the communicative center, it functions as a modal verb and here the meaning is changed (insistent).

→ together with pitch accent (SS) also fulfills the function of dividing a sentence into theme and rheme.

In its identificatory function sentence stress provides a basis for the hearer’s identification of the important parts of the utterance and for his understanding of the content.

These functions of sentence stress are accomplished in the English language by means of two main principles – dynamic and musical – as well as by two subsidiary principles – qualitative and quantitative.

Sentence stress makes use of the dynamic principle and the emphatic degree of stress which may be expressed partly by pitch variations and partly by the following methods:

1. glottal stop, e.g. It was ''utterly im'possible!

2. Modifications of stress, e.g. ''No! ''Absolutely 'nothing. ''Im''possible!

3. Specially distinct articulation of words, syllable by syllable, e.g. Absolutely! ['b-so-''lu:-tli]

The activity of the musical principle is expressed:

1. the variations of pitch among the stressed elements within the same syntagm.

2. The quantitative principle concerns mostly the consonants, e.g. Mmmarvellous [`m:a:vls].

In tone-groups stress may undergo alternations under the influ­ence of rhythm, but there are some rules concerning words that are usually stressed or unstressed in an utterance.

Given below is the list of words that are usually stressed:

Nouns. Adjectives. Numerals. Interjections. Demonstrative pro­nouns. Emphatic pronouns. Possessive pronouns (absolute form). In­terrogative pronouns. Indefinite pronouns: somebody, someone, some­thing, anybody, anyone, anything (used as subject). Indefinite neg­ative pronouns: no, none, no one, nobody, nothing. Indefinite pronouns some, any (expressing quality). Indefinite pronouns: all, each, every, other, either, both. Indefinite quantitative pronouns: much, many, a little, a few. Notional verbs. Auxiliary verbs (negative con­tracted forms). Two-word prepositions. Two-word conjunctions. Par­ticles: only, also, too, even, just.

The words that are usually unstressed:

Personal pronouns. Reflexive pronouns. Reciprocal pronouns. Relative pronouns. Possessive pronouns (conjoint form). Indefinite pronouns: somebody, someone, something, anybody, anyone, anything (used as object). Indefinite pronouns some, any (when expressing quan­tity). Auxiliary verbs (affirmative form). One-word prepositions and conjunctions. Articles. Particles: there, to. Modal verbs (contract­ed forms and general questions are exceptions).

The meaning of the verbs may, should, must changes depending on whether they are stressed or unstressed, e. g. You 'may go — possi­bility. You may 'go — permission.