Remember the vocabulary:

properly – тщательно

except - за исключением

impair – нарушать

succumb - умереть (to disease)

sequence of signs - набор признаков, синдромов

avoid - устранить, победить

remain - оставаться

assist in diagnosis – помогать в диагностике

observe - наблюдать

onset – начало

course - течение

1. Make up sentences of your own using the following words and phrases:

to explain, the meaning, to fight against disease, the causes, can be prevented by a similar treatment, an exact bacterium, to be responsible for, to realize

2. Answer the questions:

What does the word “disease” mean?

How do we fight against the disease?

What are the discoveries?

What is the role of virus?

What did the doctors realize conserning the disease?

What diseases exist in nature?

How are they classified?

What is symptom? What is a signs?

3. Read some titles of the recent papers and summarize up what diseases are described and spoken about.

4. Summarize the text given above using introductory expressions: it is said that, according to the text, it may be concluded that.

5. Discuss the meanings of the terms:

Symptom, syndrome, infection, nausea, germ, vaccine, immunity, acute, chronic.

6. Describe the types of the disease on the basis of the text.

There are innumerable classifications of disease. A very simple one is the following:

1. Germ diseases, about 80 in number, amounting to the uncontrolled invasion of the body by a disease-producing germ. These are all communicable diseases, transferred directly or indirectly from one host or victim to another. Indirectly is important; some of them, like malaria, are transmitted from man to man by insects. Contagious, or catching diseases are those transmitted by direct contact with the sick person or some immediate discharge from him; tuberculosis and syphilis, for example, are contagious.

2. Degenerative diseases, in which some part of the body wears out, fails to function, or functions improperly. In cancer, for example, the mechanisms regulating cell growth no longer function properly. Cardiovascularenal diseases represent deterioration, with failure of function, of the heart, blood vessels, and kidneys. In diabetes, the pancreas fails to work properly.

3. Psychosomatic diseases, in which the effect of the mind and the emotions on bodily function is a critical and controlling factor in the onset or perpetuation of the disease. Mental illness is the chief entry in this category; but it also includes such conditions as peptic ulcer, hysterical paralysis, and colitis.

Grammar and speaking

While reading the text there are lot of words with ing- ending. One of them is Participle I. Let’s analyse it and translate sentences.

Shall and should in use

Shall and should can be used to express your belief about a probable action or event.

• Both shall and should can be used to express your belief about a probable action or event.

• If you use should, these events can be happening now:

‘As write (5.20 pm) it should be leaving Denmark’.

Or in the future:

‘By next Friday, it should be here.’

Using should in this way is like saying “According to what I know about the circumstances, (X) is happening (or X will happen)’. Because we cannot know exactly what is affecting the events, or will affect them, we have to use a modal which expresses probability. (If we want to sound more confident about the outcome, we use will.)

- Shall refers to future probability and is only used with first person pronouns (I/we) in speaking, and as a more general future form in formal writing. In speech, shall often alternates with will or ‘Il (as in example © above). Shall is slightly more emphatic than will (and much less frequently used).

- Should is interchangeable with will when expressing probability (but the meaning is less doubtful if the latter is used):

‘As I write be leaving Denmark.’ (must have 1 st person

pronoun, not it)

Denmark.’ (cannot use shall to refer to present action)

‘As I write, my luggage will be leaving Denmark.’ (The writer is confident that the action is happening.)

‘On Friday, we shall be leaving Denmark.’ (OK because first person, and future reference)

• Care needs to be taken because should has a further very common use (dealt with in B2, below) which is to express obligation or advisability.

Compare:

‘I don’t think I shall get a job.’ (I probably wan’t get a job.)

‘I don’t think I should get a job.’ (I don’t think that it is advisable for me to get a job.)

- Depending on the context should can be used to express obligation or advisability.

- When should is used to express advisability it can be replaced by shall (in the first person) with very similar meaning:

‘Should I keep sending her mail to you?”

Means:

‘Shall I keep sending her mail to you?’

• When should is used to express obligation (or strong advisability, rather than a suggestion) the two forms are not interchangeable. Should is then equivalent to ought to:

‘The government should pay for healthcare for the elderly.’ (ought to)

‘The government pay for healthcare for the elderly.’

‘I should lose some weight.’ (It would be a good idea if I last some weight.)

‘I shall lose some weight.’ (I am determined to lose some weight.)

In the second example, shall could be replaced by will, which would be the form most often used.

Observations

- Shall is used to make suggestions, offers or arrangements. It is used with first person pronouns (shall I/we?) in speech. (In very formal writing it can be found with other subjects, but not in the context of suggestions, arrangements, and so on.)

- Shall and should can often be interchanged in the context of suggestions, but there is a slight difference in meaning:

‘Should I put this back in the fridge?’ (Is it advisable for me to put this back in the fridge?)

‘Shall I put this back in the fridge?’ (straightforward offer/question)

Shall and should in fixed expressions

- Do you know the following expressions?

- Can you match them with the functions which are listed after them?

a) Shall we say five o’clock?

b) By the way, I should say, I might be late.

c) I should imagine he’s not very pleased.

d) They certainly should.

e) He’s about 35, I should say.

Functions:

guessing/speculating

suggesting/arranging

agreeing (strongly)

introducing an awkward point

Summary

• Should is used to express probability when a speaker or writer is not confident enough about the event to use is or will.

Compare: ‘Tony is in the kitchen.’ (definite, e.g. pointing through a window at Tony)

‘He will back in five minutes.’ (definite)

and:

‘Tony should be in the kitchen.’ (Tony is probably in the kitchen, because I saw him there two minutes ago.)

‘He should be back in five minutes.’ (Tony will probably be back in five minutes.)

• A second important use of should is to express advisability or obligation. The difference between these two functions often depends on the context:

[Teacher to pupil] ‘You should work harder.’ (obligation)

[Friend to friend]. ‘You should work harder.’ (advisability)

• When weak obligation, or advisability is expressed (in the first person), shall and should are very similar in meaning:

‘Shall/should I get a haircut?’

‘Should he work harder?’

- Shall is an alternative form of will which is only used with first person pronouns (I/we) and is slightly more emphatic and formal.

- Shall is used with first and second pronouns (I/we/you) to form offers and suggestions, and often in the context of making arrangements.

b) [John, Julie and Peter are talking about family meetings and visits during holidays. Julie and Peter are married. Jenny is their young daughter.]

Peter: I as I said when the kids are small it’s different…

John: Mm.

Peter: … but when they’re older that’s when the family should get together.

John: Right.

Peter: They should all come and bring their kids.

Julie: Or we should go to them.

Peter: Yeah. When Jenny’s a grandma.

John: Yes.

Julie: Yeah. Or we should go to them, like, one Christmas they’d come to us and …

Peter: No, no. Christmas they should all come here.

c) [Mary and Dominic are taking part in a discussion about healthcare.]

Interviewer. Right. [Shall/Should] we stop treatment for people over a certain age?

Mary: No.

Dominic: No, I think.

Mary: If it’s doing them good no.

Interviewer: Mm.

Dominic: Yeah they [shall/should] just carry on with the treatment.

Write sentences and exchanges using the following:

I should say … (both uses)

I should imagine …

He certainly should …

Shall we say …