Функции Participle I

Причастие настоящего времени образуется, как и герундий, прибавлением –ing к основе глагола: to build-building работающий, to use-using использующий. В отличие от герундия, причастие не может выступать в функциях существительного. Эта неличная форма глагола имеетпризнаки прилагательного и глагола.

Функции причастия настоящего времени.

1. Часть сказуемого, (входит в состав всех временных форм Continuous и Perfect Continuous) 2. Левое определение (стоит перед определяемым словом) переводится причастием с суффиксом –ущ, -ющ, -ащ, -ящ. 3. Правое определение (стоит после определяемого слова. Образуя определительный причастный оборот) 4. Обстоятельство (часто с when или while)

They are working in the laboratory. at an increasing speed Process leading to the formation of sedimentary rocks are known. Designing new machines, engineers pay attention to geological condition.

Они работают в лаборатории. С увеличивающейся скоростью Процессы, ведущие к образованию осадочных пород, известны. Проектируя новые машины, инженеры обращают внимание на геологические условия.

Урок 8

Раздел 2 Prospecting. (16 часов)

Fossil fuels.

The chief sources of energy available to man today are oil, natural gas, coal, water power and atomic energy. Coal, gas and oil represent energy that has been concentrated by the decay of organic materials accumulated in the geologic past. These fuels are often referred to as fossil fuels.

The word fossil originally referred to anything that was dug from the ground, particularly a mineral. Today the term fossil generally means any direct evidence of past life, for example, the footprints of ancient animals. Fossils are usually found in sedimentary rocks, although sometimes they may be found in igneous and metamorphic rocks as well. They are most abundant in mudstone, shale and limestone, but fossils are also found in sandstone, dolomite and conglomerate.

Most fuels are carbon-containing substances that are burned in air. In burning fuels give off heat which is used for different purposes.

Fuels may be solid, liquid and gaseous. Solid fuels may be divided into two main groups, natural and manufactured. The former category includes coal, wood, peat and other plant products. The latter category includes coke and charcoal obtained by heating coal in the absence of air.

Liquid fuels are derived almost from petroleum. In general, natural petroleum, or crude oil, as it is widely known, is the basis of practically all industrial fuels. Petroleum is a mixture of hundreds of different hydrocarbons – compounds composed of hydrogen and carbon – together with the small amount of other elements such as sulphur, oxygen and nitrogen. Petroleum is usually associated with water and natural gas. It is found in porous sedimentary rocks where the geological formation allowed the oil to collect from a wide area. Petroleum is one of the most efficient fuels and raw materials.

Of gaseous fuels the most important are those derived from natural gas, chiefly methane or petroleum. Using gaseous fuels makes it possible to obtain high thermal efficiency, ease of distribution and control. Gas is the most economical and convenient type of fuels. Today gas is widely utilized in the home and as a raw material for producing synthetics.

Scientists consider that a most promising source of natural resources may be the floor of the sea, a subject which now has become an important field of research.

Generally speaking, all types of fossil fuels described in the text are of great economic importance as they represent the sources of energy the man uses today.

Урок 9

Coal And Its Classification

Coal is the product of vegetable matter that has been formed by the action of decay, weathering, the effects of pressure, temperature and time millions of years ago.

Although coal is not a true mineral, its formation processes are similar to those of sedimentary rocks.

Structurally coal beds are geological strata characterized by the same irregularities in thickness, uniformity and continuity as other strata of sedimentary origin. Coal beds may consist of essentially uniform continuous strata or like other sedimentary deposits may be made up of different bands or benches of varying thickness.

The benches may be separated by thin layers of clay, shale, pyrite or other mineral matter, commonly called partings.

Like other sedimentary rocks coal beds may be structurally dis­turbed by folding and faulting.

According to the amount of carbon coals are classified into: brown coals, bituminous coals and anthracite. Brown coals are in their turn subdivided into lignite and common brown coal.

Although carbon is the most important element in coal, as many as 72 elements have been found in some coal deposits, including lithium, chromium, cobalt, copper, nickel, tungsten and others.

Lignite is intermediate in properties between peat and bituminous coal, containing when dry about 60 to 75 per cent of carbon and a variable proportion of ash. Lignite is a low-rank brown-to-black coal containing 30 to 40 per cent of moisture. Developing heat it gives from 2,500 to 4,500 calories. It is easily inflammable but burns with a smoky flame. Lignite is liable to spontaneous combustion. It has been estimated that about 50 per cent of the world's total coal reserves are lignitic.

Brown coal is harder than lignite, containing from 60 to 65 per cent of carbon and developing greater heat than lignite (4,000-7,000 calories). It is very combustible and gives a brown powder. Bituminous coal is the most abundant variety, varying from medium to high rank. It is a soft, black, usually banded coal. It gives a black powder and contains 75 to 90 per cent of carbon. It weathers only slightly and may be kept in open piles with little danger of spontaneous combustion if properly stored. Medium-to-low volatile bituminous coals may be of coking quality. Coal is used intensively in blast furnaces for smelting iron ore. There are non-coking varieties of coal.

As for the thickness, the beds of this kind of coal are not very thick (1-1.5 metres). The great quantities of bituminous coal are found in the Russian Federation.

Anthracite or "hard" coal has a brilliant luster containing more than 90 per cent of carbon and low percentage of volatile matter. В is used primarily as a domestic fuel, although it can sometimes be blended with bituminous grades of coal to produce a mixture with improved coking qualities. The largest beds of anthracite are found in Russia, the USA and Great Britain.

Coal is still of great importance for the development of mod­ern industry. It may be used for domestic and industrial purposes. Being the main source of coke, coal is widely used in the iron and steel industry. Lignite, for example either in the raw state or in briquetted form, is a source of industrial carbon and industrial gases.

There is a strong tendency now for increased research into new technologies to utilize coal. No doubt, coal will be used as a raw material for the chemical industry and petrochemical processes. All these processes involve coal conversion which includes gasification designed to produce synthetic gas from coal as the basis for hydrogen manufacture, liquefaction (разжижение) for making liquid fuel from coal and other processes.

Урок 10

Soil-forming process

A soil is a mixture of weathered rocks and decayed organic matter. It is a natural body which can be regarded as a product of its environment.

The mineral composition of soils is influenced by a number of factors. They are the nature of the parent material, the processes of soil formation and the age of the soil.

Soils usually contain a greater variety of minerals than do rocks. This is explained by the fact that the parent materials are usually derived from several kinds of rock.

The influence of soil-forming processes on the mineral composition of soils is important. Soils developed in climatic zones where chemical weathering is intense will contain a lower proportion of minerals resistant to alteration than will soils developed under conditions of less intense weathering.

The age and maturity of soil also influence its mineral composition. With increasing age of soil material the proportion of readily altered minerals decreases, and the proportion of minerals resistant to alteration – increases.

One of the most important changes in the minerals of the parent material during soil development is their diminution in particle size. In turn the diminution in particle size induces greater chemical activities in minerals.

Урок 11

Geologic Hazards

Geologic hazards are hazardous or harmful events. Hazards often result in injuries or loss of life and property. Hazards include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods, landslides, subsidence, tsunamis, soil creep and avalanches.

In human history there are many examples of hazards which have resulted in disaster. For example, volcanic eruption of Vesuvius which covered the whole town.

Geologic hazards are divided into natural and man-induced. There is interdependence between all natural hazards. One hazard can influence another one. For example, there is close connection between earthquake and tsunami. Earthquakes can also cause landslides.

Examples of man-induced hazards include: land subsidence caused by withdrawal of ground water and petroleum resulting in damage to foundations and other structures, and landslides resulting from highway construction which modifies stable slopes.

In order to save people’s lives and property people should investigate geologic hazards. They should take care of nature, but not get in its way. To prevent and eliminate the problem is much more important than to recreate the damaged. Men should control people’s activities of nuclear testing, extraction of enormous amount of minerals, air pollution and other ecological problem.

Урок 12

Prospecting

Mining activities include prospecting and exploration for a mineral deposit through finding, proving, developing, extracting and processing the ore. That is why it is possible to divide the min­ing activity into three major phases: 1) before mining which in­volves prospecting and exploration required to locate, characterize and prove a potential ore body; 2) mining which refers to actual coal or ore extraction. Extraction processes include underground or surface mining and dredging; 3) after mining which involves processing and preparing the raw ore for the end product.

As has already been said, before a mineral deposit can be worked, that is, before it can be extracted from the Earth for use by man, it must first be found. The search for economically useful mineral deposits is called prospecting. To establish the quality and quantity of a mineral deposit, the type of country rock, etc. means to prove it and this process is called proving. Prospecting and proving are only two different stages of mining geological exploration, the latter includes drilling and driving of openings.

Last century prospectors looked for visible evidence of mineral­ization on the surface of the Earth. To recognize valuable minerals it was necessary to know their various distinctive physical properties. For example, gold occurs in nature as a heavy malleable yellow metal. Galena, the most important mineral containing lead, is dark grey, heavy and lustrous. The first ores of iron to be mined were deposits of magnetite, a black heavy mineral capable of attracting a piece of iron.

The aim of geological prospecting is to provide information on a preliminary estimation of the deposit and the costs of the geologi­cal investigations to be made. It also indicates whether it is available to continue the exploration or not.

Prospecting work includes three stages: 1) finding signs of the mineral; 2) finding the deposit; 3) exploring the deposit.

General indications of the possibility of exposing this or that mineral in a locality can be obtained by studying its general topo­graphical relief, the type of ground and its general natural condi­tions. Thus, in mountainous regions where fissures were formed during the process of mountain formation, ore minerals could be expected in the fissure fillings. In hilly regions, sedimentary depos­its would be expected.

Certain deposits are found only in a particular type of ground. Coal seams, for example, are found in sedimentary formations mainly consisting of sandstones and shales. Veins, on the other hand, are found in crystalline (igneous) rocks, and the type of country rock usually determines the type of minerals.

At present, prospecting methods to be used are as follows:

1. Surface geological and mineralogical prospecting such as panning.

2. Geophysical, geochemical, geobotanical prospecting.

3. Aerial photography with geological interpretation of the data to be obtained is highly effective from aircraft or helicopter. Besides, successful development of space research has made it possible to explore the Earth's resources from space by satellites.

In modern prospecting the methods mentioned above are used together with the study of geological maps.