Characteristics of Presidents

Some national presidents are "figurehead" heads of state, like constitutional monarchs, and not active executive heads of government. In contrast, in a full-fledged presidential system, a president is chosen by the people to be the head of the executive branch. A few countries (e.g., South Africa) have powerful presidents who are elected by the legislature. These presidents are chosen in the same way as a prime minister, yet are heads of both state and government. These executives are titled "president", but are in practice similar to prime ministers.

4. There are several definitions of "political system", which of them do you prefer?

● A political system is a complete set of institutions and interest groups (such as political parties, trade unions, lobby groups), the relationships between those institutions and the political norms and rules that govern their functions (constitution, election, law).

● A political system is composed of the members of a social organization (group) who are in power.

● A political system is a concept which theoretically regarded as a way of the government, makes a policy and also makes them more organized in their administration.

5. Identify the political systems of the following countries: The USA, Ireland, Germany, Monaco, Ukraine.

READING 2

1. Read the following extracts, give definitions to the following terms:

constitution, government, court.

A constitution is a set of rules for government – often codified as a written document – that establishes principles of an autonomous political entity. In the case of countries, this term refers specifically to a national constitution defining the fundamental political principles, and establishing the structure, procedures, powers and duties of a government. By limiting the government's own reach, most constitutions guarantee certain rights to the people. The term constitution can be applied to any overall law that defines the functioning of a government, including several historical constitutions that existed before the development of modern national constitutions.

Constitutions concern different kinds of political organizations. They are found extensively in regional government, at supranational (e.g., European Union), federal (e.g., United States Constitution), state or provincial (e.g., the constitution of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts or the constitution of the State of New York), and sub-national levels. They are also found in many political groups, such as political parties, pressure groups, and trade unions.

A government is a body within an organization that has the authority to make and enforce rules, laws and regulations.

Typically, the government refers to a civil government which can be either local, national, or international. However, commercial, academic, religious, or other formal organizations are also governed by internal bodies. Such bodies may be called boards of directors, managers, or governors or they may be known as the administration (as in schools) or councils of elders (as in churches). The size of governments can vary by region or purpose.

Local governments are administrative office that is smaller than a state. The term is used to contrast with offices at nation-state level, which are referred to as the central government, national government, or (where appropriate) federal government.

In modern nations, local governments usually have fewer powers than national governments do. They usually have some power to raise taxes, though these may be limited by central legislation. In some countries local government is partly or wholly funded by subventions from central government taxation. The question of Municipal Autonomy – which powers the local government has, or should have, and why – is a key question of public administration and governance.

A court is a body, often a governmental institution, with the authority to adjudicate legal disputes and dispense civil, criminal, or administrative justice in accordance with rules of law. In common law and civil law states, courts are the central means for dispute resolution, and it is generally understood that all persons have an ability to bring their claims before a court. Similarly, those accused of a crime have the right to present their defense before a court.

Court facilities range from a simple farmhouse for a village court in a rural community to huge buildings housing dozens of courtrooms in large cities.

A court is a kind of deliberative assembly with special powers, called its jurisdiction, to decide certain kinds of questions or petitions put to it. Courts consist of additional attorneys, bailiffs, reporters, and perhaps a jury.

The term "court" is often used to refer to the president of the court, also known as the "judge" or the "bench", or the panel of such officials. For example, in the United States, and other common law jurisdictions, the term "court" (in the case of U.S. federal courts) by law is used to describe the judge himself or herself.

DEVELOPING VOCABULARY

1. Complete the sentences with the words from the vocabulary table.

1) A political party is a political organization that seeks to … political power within government, usually by participating in … campaigns.

2) In a … system no official political parties exist, sometimes reflecting … restrictions on political parties.

3) A … system is a system of government where in the … of the executive branch are drawn from the … .

4) The style of two houses of parliament is called … system.

5) The president has the power to … acts of the legislative … .

6) Members of the … serve at the pleasure of the … and must carry out the policies of the … and legislative branches.

2. Make up suitable word combinations using the words from A and B.

1. Executive, political, unicameral, presidential, mutually, dominant, upper, electoral.

2. Campaigns, party, exclusive, power, house, system, branch, system.

3. Finish the sentences.

1) A kind of deliberative assembly with special powers is called …

2) Local governments usually have fewer powers than … . They usually have some power … .

3) Most constitutions guarantee certain … ю

4) A national constitution defines … , and establishes … ю

5) Court facilities range from … in a rural community to … in large cities.

LISTENING

1. Listen to the lecture about the Superior Court of the state of Pennsylvania. Here are explanations of some words that might seem unfamiliar to you:

• to hear a case – a judge (and sometimes a jury) listens to both sides of a legal problem in court

• decision – the result of a court problem

• panel – a jury

• to review – another judge (or group of judges) in a higher court looks at a decision; this judge (or these judges) decide if a decision is correct

• to appeal – to ask another court to review a decision

• appellate court – a court that hears appeals

• Special Courts – (e. g. Court of Customs, and the Tax Court)

• District Courts – the lowest courts in the federal court system: they have a judge and jury, they hear the cases.

• Circuit Court of Appeals – appellate courts in the federal court system; they have a group of three judges to hear appeals; they do not have a jury.

• Superior Court – высшая судебная инстанция.

2. After the second listening to the extract:

• describe the organization of the judicial process;

• the functions of the Superior Court;

• the structure of the panel;

• hearings of different cases;

• explain the appeals process.

3. This diagram shows The Federal Court System of the USA. Study it carefully.

Supreme Court • 9 judges • no jury • highest court in USA • all decisions are final

can appeal to

can appeal to

Special Courts
		13 Circuit Courts of Appeals • a group of 3 judges • no jury • higher courts • review district court decisions

can appeal to

94 District Courts • 1 judge + jury • lower courts • hears cases about federal laws and constitutional rights • most cases start and stop at this level

4. Look at the diagram. Use appropriate words to complete the following text:

There are ninety – four 1)_______________ courts in the federal system. Congress can change this number. These courts 2)______________cases about federal laws and 3)_______________ rights. These are lower 4)______.Some cases go to higher courts. These courts are the appellate courts. They hear 5)______________from district courts. There are 6)_______________Circuit Courts of Appeals in the USA. Some very important cases can go to the 7)_______________ court. It is the highest court in the US. Two examples of special courts are the Court of 8)______________ and the US Tax Court.

5. Compare the judicial process in the USA with that of the Republic of Belarus. Discuss it with your partner.

SPEAKING

1. Discuss the following questions with your partner.

1) What is the major factor of distinguishing party systems?

2) What are the advantages and disadvantages of parliamental and presidential systems?

3) Mention three branches of power.

4) How do the functions of president vary in different countries?

5) What is the main juridical document of a state?