1) Предмет дисциплины. История английского языка The subject of History of English language is a systematic description of the language development of the changes of it`s phonetic structure, spelling, grammatical system and historical conditions causing with changes. There are two approaches to the language analysis: Diachronic study – is the study of the historical development of the whole system of the language. Synchronic study - is the study of the language at a definite stage of lexical, grammatical and phonetic elements.

2) Германские языки Old Germanic languages and Modern Germanic languages do not coincide. Some of Old languages gave origin to a number of Modern languages, some of them mixed and some of them disappeared. Old Germanic dialects are divided into three groups according to the territory they occupy in Europe

Northern	Western	Eastern
Swedish Danish Norwegian Icelandic Faroese	Anglian Freazian Jutish Saxon Franconian High Germanic Bavarian English	Gothic Vandalic Burgundian Lambardic

The Franconian dialect gave birth to Dutch and Flamish languages. The Dutch developed into The Dutch itself and Africaans.

Modern Germanic Languages

Northern	Western	Eastern
Icelandic Faroese Danish Swedish	English German Dutch Flemish Africaans Yiddish Frisian	Gothic Burgundian Vandalic (dead languages)

3)Фонетическая система германских языков а) Word stress In simple forms the first root syllable was stressed in compound forms ( nouns and adjectives) the stress fell on the prefix. In verbs prefix was a separate particle and they didn`t take stress. So there were two types of stress: 1) nominal and 2) verbal b)Vowels Vowels underwent two changes: 1) The first is qualitative change when one sound becomes another 2) The second is quantitative change 3)Diphtongization(6^th century) 4)Palatal mutation(7^th) 5)Velar mutation(7^th) 6)Contraction 7)Growth of new diphthongs 8)Great vowel shift 9)Vacalization

In Germanic languages all the vowels are divided into short and long vowels. Long vowels became closer and diphthongized. Short vowels changed to more open. After all these changes in late Proto-Germanic the vowel system contained five short sounds and five long sounds. c) Consonants The consonants in Germanic languages shifted. The first who formulated this was Jacob Grimm in early 19^th century, he called it Grimm`s Law. It`s also known as the first consonant shift. It had three steps. The second was in the 19^th century and late came the third. 1) voiceless plosives went to voiceless fricative 2) voiced …….shifted to voiceless plosive 3)voiced aspirated plosives were reflected voiced fricative or pure voiced plosives Another important changes of consonants were discovered in the late 19^th century by Carl Verner, which is known as Verner`s law: unstressed vowel +voiceless stop .voiceless fricative voiced fricative Verner`s law accounts for appearance of voiced fricative or it`s later modification (d) in place of voiceless (th) wich ought to be expected under Grimm`s law. In late Proto-Germanic the phonetic conditions that caused the voicing had disappeared the stress had shifted to the first syllable. The result of voicing by Verner`s aw – an interchange of consonants in grammatical forms of word. 4) Германский и английский алфавиты. The Runic alphabets are a set of related alphabets using letters (known asrunes), formerly used to write Germanic languages before and shortly after theChristianization of Scandinavia and the British Isles. The Scandinavian variants are also known as Futhark (or fuþark, derived from their first six letters: F, U, Þ, A, R, and K); the Anglo-Saxon variant as Futhorc (due to sound changes undergone in Old English by the same six letters).

The runes were introduced to, or invented by, the Germanic peoples in the 1st or 2nd century. Old English / Anglo-Saxon was first written with a version of the Runic alphabet known as Anglo-Saxon or Anglo-Frisian runes, or futhorc/fuþorc. This alphabet was an extended version of Elder Futhark with between 26 and 33 letters. Anglo-Saxon runes were used probably from the 5th century AD until about the 10th century. They started to be replaced by the Latin alphabet from the 7th century, and after the 9th century the runes were used mainly in manuscripts and were mainly of interest to antiquarians. Their use ceased not long after the Norman conquest. With spread of Christianity runes were replaced by Latin Alphabet.

Вопрос 5

Вопрос 6 genealogical classification of Germanic languages

The Germanic languages are a branch of the Indo-European language family spoken by a sizable population in Western Europe, North America, and Australasia, estimated to be nearly 600 million. The common ancestor of all of the languages in this branch is called Proto-Germanic (also known as Common Germanic), which was spoken in approximately the middle-1st millennium BC in Iron Age northern Europe. Proto-Germanic, along with all of its descendants, is characterized by a number of unique linguistic features, most famously the consonant change known as Grimm's law. Early varieties of Germanic enter history with the Germanic tribes moving south frofrom nor in the 2nd century BC, to settle in north-central Europe.

The most widely spoken Germanic languages are English and German, with approximately 300–400 million native English speakers and over 100 million native German speakers. They belong to the West Germanic family. The West Germanic group also includes other major languages, such as Dutch with 23 million, Low Saxon with approximately 5 million speakers in Germany and 1.7 million in the Netherlands, and Afrikaans with over 6 million native speakers.  The North Germanic languages include Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, and Faroese, which have a combined total of about 20 million speakers. There is also the East Germanic branch, which includes languages such as Gothic, Burundian, and Vandalia, but it has been extinct for at least two centuries. The SIL Ethnologies lists 48 different living Germanic languages, with the Western branch accounting for 42, and the Northern for 6 languages. The total number of Germanic languages is unknown, as some of them, especially East Germanic languages, disappeared shortly after the Migration Period.

Вопрос 7. Grammatical categories Old English verb

Strong Verbs

The strong verbs in OE are usually divided into seven classes. Classes from 1 to 6 use vowel gradation which goes back to the IE ablaut-series modified in different phonetic conditions in accordance with PG and Early OE sound changes. Class 7 includes reduplicating verbs, which originally built their past forms by means of repeating the root-morpheme; this doubled root gave rise to a specific kind of root-vowel interchange.

The principal forms of all the strong verbs have the same endings irrespective of class: -an for the Infinitive, no ending in the Past sg stem, -on in the form of Past pl, -en for Participle II.

Weak Verbs

The number of weak verbs in OE by far exceeded that of strong verbs.

The verbs of Class I usually were i-stems, originally contained the element [-i/-j] between the root and the endings. The verbs of Class II were built with the help of the stem-suffix -ō, or -ōj and are known as ō-stems. Class III was made up of a few survivals of the PG third and fourth classes of weak verbs, mostly -ǽj-stems.

Вопрос 8. Strong verbs in Old English period

In Old English there are four types of verbs: strong verbs, weak verbs, preterite present verbs and irregular verbs. The differences between these types are mainly marked in the category of tense. Weak verbs show a dental suffix in their preterite and past participle, strong verbs forms their preterite by changing the stem vowel in quality and/or quantity. Preterite present verbs show both in their preterite: a change of the stem vowel and a dental suffix. The last group consists of only four verbs (dn, gn, beon, willan). These verbs show irregular forms for their present and preterite (Fichte & Kemmler 79). The full paradigm for beon for example even shows two different roots.

This section will deal with the Old English strong verbs exclusively and disregard the other types.

Old English strong verbs have four different stems in the gradation series: the infinitive stem (from which all present forms including the present participle and the infinitive derive), two preterite stems (one, from which the indicative forms of the first and third person derive and another one from which all other finite preterite forms derive) and a past participle stem (Fichte & Kemmler 81). The stems are distinguished by different vowels: cropan, (`creep′) crap ­ crupon ­ cropen. However, the same vowel may occur twice. Bindan (`bind′) for example has three different vowels: bindan ­ band ­ bundon bunden whereas faran (`go, travel′) has only two: faran ­for- foron ­faren.

9. Minor groups of Verbs The majority of OE verbs fell into two great divisions: the strong verbs and the weak verbs. Besides these two main groups there were a few verbs which could be put together as “minor” groups. The main difference between the strong and weak verbs lay in the means of forming the principal parts, or “stems” of the verb. The strong verbs formed their stems by means of ablaut and by adding certain suffixes; in some verbs ablaut was accompanied by consonant interchanges. The strong verbs had four stems, as they distinguished two stems in the Past Tense – one for the 1st and 3rd p. sg Ind. Mood, the other – for the other Past tense forms, Ind. and Subj. the weak verbs derived their Past tense stem and the stem of Participle II from the Present tense stem with the help of the dental suffix -d- or -t-; normally they did not interchange their root vowel, but in some verbs suffixation was accompanied by a vowel interchange. Minor groups of verbs differed from the weak and strong verbs. Some of them combined certain features of the strong and weak verbs in a peculiar way (“preterite-present” verbs); others were suppletive or altogether anomalous. The most important group of these verbs were the so-called “preterite-presents” or “past-present” verbs. Originally the Present tense forms of these verbs were Past tense forms. Later these forms acquired a present meaning but preserved many formal features of the Past tense. Most of these verbs had new Past Tense forms built with the help of the dental suffix. Some of them also acquired the forms of the verbals: Participles and Infinitives. In OE there were twelve preterite-present verbs. Six of them have survived in Mod E: OE āз; cunnan; cann; dear(r), sculan, sceal; maзan, mæз; mōt (NE owe, ought; can; dare; shall; may; must). Most preterite-presents did not indicate actions, but expressed a kind of attitude to an action denoted by another verb, an Infinitive which followed the preterite-present. In other words they were used like modal verbs, and eventually developed into modern modal verbs. Вопрос 10-11. Changes of stressed vowels in Early Old English

The development of vowels in Early OE consisted of the modification of separate vowels, and also of the modification of entire sets of vowels. The change begins with growing variation in pronunciation, which manifests itself in the appearance of numerous allophones: after the stage of increased variation, some allophones prevail over the others and a replacement takes place. It may result in the splitting of phonemes and their numerical growth, which fills in the “empty boxes” of the system or introduces new distinctive features. It may also lead to the merging of old phonemes, as their new prevailing allophones can fall together.

Вопрос 12. Grammatical categories of noun in old english. The OE noun had two grammatical categories: number and case. Also, nouns distinguished three genders, but gender was not a grammatical category; it was merely a classifying feature accounting for the division of nouns into morphological classes. The category of number consisted of two members: singular and plural. The noun had four cases: Nominative, Genitive, Dative and Accusative.

The Nom. can be defined as the case of the active agent, for it was the case of the subject mainly used with verbs denoting activity; the Nom. could also indicate the subject characterized by a certain quality or state; could serve as a predicative and as the case of address.

The Gen. case was primarily the case of nouns and pronouns serving as attributes to other nouns. The meanings of the Gen. case were very complex and can only be grouped under the headings “Subjective” and “Objective” Gen. Subjective Gen. is associated with the possessive meaning and the meaning of origin. Objective Gen. is associated with what is termed “partitive meaning” as in sum hund scipa ‘a hundred of ships’.

Dat. was the chief case used with prepositions, e.g. on morзenne ‘in the morning’

The Acc. case was the form that indicated a relationship to a verb. Being the direct object it denoted the recipient of an action, the result of the action and other meanings.

13. Грамматические категории древне-английских прилагательных.

The adj. in OE had following morphological categories:

1. Number – Singular and plural

2. Gender – Masculine (M), Feminine (F), Neuter (N).

3. Case – Nominative (Nom), Genitive (Gen), Dative (Dat), Accusative (Acc) + Instrumental (Instr) Instrumental Case was used to express instrumental meaning but only in the adjective while the noun stood in Dative Case:

by/with + Adjective (Instr) + Noun (Dat)

4. Declension (weak declension and strong declension)

14. Сильное и слабое склонение прилагательных в древне-английский период

Declension (weak declension and strong declension)

The choice of the declension was determined the following factors:

by the syntactical function of the adjective;

by the degree of comparison;

by the presence of noun determiners

The weak form was used when the adjective was preceded by a demonstrative pronoun or the Genitive case of personal pronouns.

The strong form was used when the adjective had the function of a predicative or an attribute and wasn’t preceded by any determiners.

The different between strong and week declension:

The weak form had the meaning of definiteness, while the strong form had the meaning of indefiniteness.

Each type had some peculiarities. In the strong declension masculine and neuter endings coincided with those of the a-stem declension of nouns; feminine endings corresponded to those of the o-stem declension of nouns.

15. Местоимения в древне-английский период.

OE pronouns fall into the following groups:

1.personal,

2.demonstrative,

3. interrogative

4. indefinite.

Morphological categories

• Person

• Number (singular, dual and plural)

• Case

• Gender (in the 3rd person singular)

OE pronouns are characterized by the following:

1. The forms of the Genitive and Dative cases for masculine and neuter pronouns are the same (this rule applies to OE nouns as well)

2. In the Genitive and Dative singular different classes of pronouns exhibit a common feature: the forms of the Genitive case have the ending ‘-s’ and the forms of the Dative case end in ‘-m’.

3. Interrogative pronouns have neither feminine or plural forms.

Personal Pronouns in OE were characterized by the following morphological categories: person, number, case and gender, though not every personal pronoun had all the categories.

Personal pronouns of the 1st person followed a suppletive paradigm. Their form in the nominative case was formed differently from that of the objective cases.

The pronouns of the 1st and 2nd persons had three numbers – singular, dual and plural. Personal pronouns of the 3rd person singular and plural originated from demonstrative pronouns.

The category of gender was only present in the 3rd person singular.

16. Средства словообразования в древне – английском языке.

In OE the vocabulary mainly grew by means of word-formation. The words fell into 3 main types:

simple words (root-words) – a word consisting of a root-morpheme with no derivational suffixes

derived words – a word consisting of a root-morpheme + 1 or more then one affix

compound words – a word consisting of more then one root-morpheme

Way of word- formation

Word-Derivation:

1. sound interchange – was employed frequently, but never alone (usually was accompanied by suffixation). Sources of sound-interchange:

- ablaut

- palatal mutation:

verbs from nouns (doom  deem; food  feed, etc.);

verbs from adjectives (full  fill; healthy  heal, etc.);

nouns from adjectives (long  length; strong  strength, etc.);

- consonantal interchanges (death – dead; rise – rear, etc.).

2.word stress – was not frequent; it helped to differentiate between parts of speech and was used together with other means.

3. prefixation – was a productive way

- IE prefixes (OE un- (negative));

- Germanic prefixes (OE mis-, be-, ofer-(over-));

- prefixes were widely used with verbs, but were far less productive with the other parts of speech.

- prefixes often modified lexical meaning (e.g. OE siþ (journey) – for-siþ (death));

- there were grammatical prefixes

• was used to build Participle 2 of strong verbs (e.g. OE sitten (to sit) – ζesett (sat), etc.);

• turned durative verbs into terminative (e.g. OE feran (to go) – ζeferan (to reach), etc.).

5. suffixation – was the most productive way, mostly applied to nouns and adjectives, seldom to verbs.

Classification of OE suffixes:

Suffixes of agent nouns (-end (OE frēond (friend)), -ere (OE fiscere (fisher)), -estre (feminine) (OE bæcestre (female baker)), etc.);

Suffixes of abstract nouns (-t (OE siht (sight)), -þu (OE lengþu (length)), -nes/nis (OE beorhtnes (brightness), blindnis (blindness)), -unζ/inζ (OE earnunζ (earning)), etc.);

Adjectival suffixes (-iζ (OE hāliζ (holy)), -isc (OE mannisc (human)), -ede (OE hōcede (hooked)), -sum (OE lanζsum (lasting)) etc.);

New suffixes derived from noun root-morphemes (-dōm (OE frēodōm (freedom)), -hād (OE cīldhād (childhood)), -lāc (OE wedlāc (wedlock)), -scipe (OE frēondscipe (frendship)), etc.);

New suffixes derived from adjective root-morphemes (-lic (OE woruldlic (worldly)), -full (OE carfull (careful)), -lēas (OE slǽplēas (sleepless)), etc.).

Word-Composition

Word-composition – a combination of 2 ore more root-morphemes – was a highly productive way of word-formation. The main patterns were:

N + N  N (the most frequent) (e.g. OE ζimm-stān (gemstone), OE mann-cynn (mankind));

syntactical compounds  N (e.g. OE dæζes-ēaζe (literally “day’s eye” = NE daisy));

Adj + N  Adj (so-called bahuvrihi type) (e.g. OE mild-heort (literally “mild heort” = NE merciful), OE ān-ēaζe (literally “one eye” = NE one-eyed));

N + Adj  Adj (e.g. OE dōm-ζeorn (eager for glory), OE mōd-ceariζ (sorrowful));

V + N  N (very rare) (e.g. OE bæc-hūs (baking-house)).

Word composition was often accompanied by other ways of word formation mentioned above (e.g. OE þēaw-fæst-nes (þēaw = “custom” N, fæst = “firm” N, nes = “-ness” suffix)) = NE discipline).