24. Figures of Quality. Metonymical group: Metonymy, Synecdoche, Periphrasis, Euphemism

Such lexical SD as metonymy and irony belong to the first group of LSD based on the interaction of lexical meanings. Metonymy (Gk. metonymia 'changing of name') is a trope in which the name of a thing is replaced by the name of an associated thing. One name is used instead of another. Unlike metaphor where the interaction b/w the meanings of different words is based on resemblance, metonymy reflects the actually existing relations. The following types of metonymy ore differentiated: 1) the abstract stands for the concrete : It was a representative gathering— science, politics, business. 2) the container is mentioned instead of the contents : He drank one more cup (of coffee). 3) the material instead of the thing made of it: He examined her bronzes and clays. 4) the maker for the thing made : He had several Picassos (paintings by P. Picasso.). He bought a Ford. 5) the instrument it put for the agent. His pen is rather sharp. The saxophone has the flu today. 6) a part is put for the whole (synecdoche): the crown(= king); a hand(= worker)

Metonymy reflects the actually existing relations between two objects. Since the types of such relations are limited, they are observed again and again, and metonymy in many cases is trite, as to earn one's bread; to ton by the pen; to keep one's mouth shut; to read Shakespeare.

Periphrasis is a word-combination that is used instead of a word, designating an object. Real periphrases attract the reader's attention and serve as effective means of creating imagery. Periphrasis is often used with the aim of producing humorous effect. 1) logical-is based on logical notions; a certain feature of an object is taken to denote the whole object or a wider notion is substituted for the concrete notion (The instruments of destruction(pistol)). 2) figurative- may be based on the methapho (back to your native spring(=eyes)). May be based on metonomy (he married a good deal of money (=rich lady)). 3) euphemistic -a word/phrase used to replace a rude word or expression by a conventionally more acceptable one.(to die-pass away, join the majority).

26.The word as a linguistic unit: its lexical and grammatical characteristics

As it is known, the word has been in the centre of studies carried out by a number of scholars. Despite a considerable number of scientific works on this subject the problem of exact and unique definition of the word is still one of the most disputable in modern linguistics. Therefore, the aim of our paper is to make an attempt to outline the basic differences in grammatical and lexical aspects of the word.

It is very difficult to give a comprehensive definition of the word and at the same time the one which would unambiguously apply to all the different word-units of the lexicon. M.Y. Blokh [2, p. 20]admits that within the framework of different linguistic trends and theories the word is defined as the minimal potential sentence, the minimal free linguistic form, the elementary component of the sentence, the articulate sound-symbol, the grammatically arranged combination of sound with meaning, the uninterrupted string of morphemes and so on. But still none of these definitions has the power to precisely cover all the lexical segments of language without a residue remaining outside the field of definition. It is universally recognized that word meaning is not homogeneous, but it is made up of various components, which are described as types of meaning. At the same time all of the mentioned definitions of the word admit the existence of two types of its meaning: grammatical and lexical.

O.S. Akhmanova [1, p. 54] defineslexical meaning as the realization of notion, emotion or relation by means of the language system. Lexical meaning is a complex thing based on the procedure of reflecting the reality in a person’s mind. It is a specific kind of “content” produced (or engendered) by the reverberation of objective reality in the human consciousness which constitutes the inner structure of linguistic units with respect to which their material form is the outer structure; the material meaning of a word, i.e. the meaning of the main material part of the word, which reflects the concept the given word expresses and the basic properties of the thing (phenomenon, property, state, etc.) the word denotes.

Grammatical meaning is very abstract, very general. Thus, the grammatical form is not confined to an individual word, but unites a whole class of words, so that each word of the class expresses the corresponding grammatical meaning together with its individual, concrete semantics.Grammaticalmeaning is a general abstract meaning of classes of words which finds its expression through formal markers thus placing a linguistic unit in a grammatical category or a grammatical class of words (a part of speech).

Therefore, the word is a structural and semantic language unit, which serves for naming objects, phenomena, their peculiarities, states and relations; it is an indivisible unit, having its own meaning and function. Lexical meaning of the word is unique for every linguistic unit and is typical not of every unit. On the contrary, grammatical meaning is general and characteristic to a whole class of words; some words (called functional) are devoid of lexical meaning and have only grammatical one.