1. Making content knowledge visible to learners

2. Making teachers’ thinking visible to learners

3. Making learners’ thinking visible to themselves, their peers, and the teacher.

Problem – based learning focuses on all the above – mentioned challenges. PBL process embraces / incorporates progressive active learning, learner – centred approach and the use of metacognition and self –regulation in the context of real world or simulated complex problems. It is a pedagogy based on constructivism in which realistic problems are used in conjunction with the design of a learning environment where inquiry activities, self – directed learning, information mining, dialogue and collaborative problem solving are incorporated (Tan, 2004a). PBL has certain characteristics as following (Tan 2003, 2005).

1. Use of real – world problem as the starting point of learning, which calls   for multiple perspectives.

2. Self – directed learning is primary.

3. The problem calls for identification of learning needs and new areas of    learning.

4. Harnessing of a variety of knowledge sources and the use and evaluation    of information resources are essential PBL processes.

5. Learning is collaborative, communicative and cooperative.

6. Development of inquiry and problem – solving skills is as important as    content knowledge acquisition for the solution of the problem.

7. PBL tutor facilitates and coaches through questioning and cognitive coaching.

8. Closure in the PBL process includes synthesis and integration of learning and concludes with an evaluation and review of the learner’s experience and the learning processes.

Research in PBL approaches found that students trained in PBL were more likely to use versatile and meaningful approaches to studying, compared to non – PBL students (Major and Palmer, 2001). PBL create an intrinsic interest and enhance self – directed learning skills (Morrison, 2004). By reflecting upon prior learning, students are able to analyze and synthesize the contextual information, acquire further knowledge and assimilate it into their existing knowledge base (Nelson et al., 2004).

Recent, research on student-centred learning and its pedagogical implications revealed that good teaching should be understood not as a set of performance skills which may only be opportunistically related to students’ extant conceptualizations , but as the locus through which students confront their own epistemic beliefs also. In addition to this, teaching practices at higher education must focus explicitly on the difficult issue of what counts as evidence in order to boost students’ reasoning ability/process. Thus, if student-centred learning is to grow, students need to be socialized to ask genuine questions and to rely on themselves and their peers as resources in solving the problems they identify. Therefore, pedagogical approaches which support this kind of endeavour, must determine / appraise the extent to which student – centred discussion activities or hands – on learning activities are purposefully / intentionally included in the pedagogical practices of teachers who genuinely subscribe to a constructivist view of learning (Maclellan & Soden, 2004). In addition to this research and theory into cognitive load and technology – enhanced learning suggests that complex information environments may well impose a barrier on student learning. However, teachers have the capacity to mitigate against cognitive load through the way they prepare and support students engaging with complex information environments. Thus, learning is enhanced when integrating pedagogies are employed to mitigate against high–load information environments (Bahr & Bahr, 2009). This suggests that a mature policy framework for ICTs in education needs to be considered for the development of pedagogical practices as well as professional competencies to effectively design and integrate technologies for learning. Of course, this enhanced teaching practice or professional competency is dependent upon teachers problematizing the ways and contexts in which they learn and make sense of that practice. In this knowledge – based society self study and lifelong learning have been strongly advocated as the cornerstone of effective professional practice (Clarke & Erickson, 2007), and instrumental in strengthening the relationship between teaching and learning irrespective of developmental stages and levels of education.

Conclusion: -

From the above discussion, it can be concluded that insightful, flexible, inventive, and breakthrough thinking develops best when people are immersed in solving a problem over an extended period of time. The pedagogy of PBL helps to make visible or explicit the thinking as well as the richness of the cognitive structuring and the processes involved. Moreover, in order to boost the technology enhanced student–centred learning, teachers should genuinely subscribe to a constructive view of learning by intentionally incorporating various student-centred discussion/participatory activities and an optimum level of ICT based hands-on learning activities in pedagogical practices. At last, but not the least our teachers have to constantly engage themselves in self-study and life-long learning in order to achieve professional competency and academic excellence.

References:

Adey, P., Csapo, B., Demetriou, A., Hautamäki, J., & Shayer, M. (2007). Can we     be intelligent about intelligence? Why education needs the concept of plastic     general ability. Educational Research Review, 2, 75-97.

Alison Gopnik, Professor of Psychology at the University of California at     Berkeley. Philosophy of Science, Vol. 63, No. 4. (Dec., 1996), pp. 485-514.

Amabile, T. M. (1996). Creativity in Context, Boulder, CO: West View Press.

Amadieu et al.’s (2009). Effects of prior knowledge and concept-map     structure     on disorientation, cognitive load, and learning. Learning and     Instruction,     19(5), 376-386.

Anderson, J. R. (1983), ‘The Architecture of Cognition’. Harvard University     Press, Cambridge, MA.

Anderson, J. R., and Thompson, R. (1989). Use of Analogy in a Production     System Architecture. In S. Vosniadou and A. Ortony eds. Similarity and     Analogical Reasoning, 267-297. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Atkin, M. & Cohen, P. (1996). Monitoring strategies for embedded agents:     Experiments and analysis. Journal of Adaptive Behavior 4(2), 125-172.

Averill, J. R. (1999a). Individual differences in emotional creativity: Structure and     correlates. Journal of Personality, 67, 331–371.

Averill, J. R. (1999b). Creativity in the domain of emotion. In T. Dalgleish &M. J.     Power (Eds.), Handbook of cognition and emotion (pp. 765–782). New York:     Wiley.

Averill, J. R., & Thomas-Knowles, C. (1991). Emotional creativity. In K. T.     Strongman (Ed.), International review of studies on emotion (Vol. 1, pp. 269–    299). London: Wiley.

Bahr, M., & Bahr, N. (2009) Technological Barriers to Learning: Designing     Hybrid Pedagogy To Minimise Cognitive Load and Maximise Understanding.     C.–H.Ng, P.D. Renshow (els), Reforming Learning. Springer, Science Business     Media B.V.

Baltes, P. B., & Staudinger, U. M. (2000). Wisdom: A metaheuristic (pragmatic)     to orchestrate mind and virtue toward excellence. American Psychologist, 55,     122-136.

Baron-Cohen, S., Tager-Flusberg, H. & Cohen, D. (Eds.) (2000). Understanding     Other Minds: Perspectives from Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 2nd     Edition. New York: Oxford University Press.

Barron, F. X., & Harrington, D. M. (1981). Creativity, intelligence, and     personality. Annual Review of Psychology, 32, 439–476.

Barron, K. E., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2003). Achievement goals and optimal     motivation: testing multiple goal models. Journal of Personality and Social     Psychology, 80(5), 706-722.

Berglund, H., Wennberg, K. (2006). Creativity among entrepreneurship students:     comparing engineering and business education, International Journal of     Continuing Engineering Education and Lifelong Learning, Vol. 16 No.5.     Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

Biggs, J.B., & Collis, K.F. (1982). Evaluating the quality of learning: The SOLO     Taxonomy, New York, Academic Press.

Bloom, B.S. et al. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: Cognitive domain,     New York, David McKay Company, Inc.

Boutaiba, S. (2004). A moment in time', in D. Hjort and C. Steyaert (Eds).     Narrative and. Discursive Approaches in Entrepreneurship, Cheltenham:     Edward Elgar, pp. 22-56.

Bransford, J., Brown, A., & Cocking, R. (2000). How people learn: brain, mind      experience and school. Washington, DC: Academic.

Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (2000). How People Learn:     Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition. Washington,     D.C.: Academy.

Brown, A. L. (1987). Metacognition, executive control, self-regulation and     other more mysterious mechanisms. In F. Weinert, & R. Kluwe (Eds.),     Classroom management (pp. 144 – 181). Hillsdale, NJ: Eribaum.

Bruer, J. T. (1993). Schools for Thought: A Science of Learning in the Classroom.     Massachusetts: The MIT Press Cambridge.

Bruinsma, M. (2004). Motivation, cognitive processing and achievement in higher     education. Learning and Instruction 14, pp. 549–568.

Bruner, J. S. (1964). “The course of cognitive growth,” American Psychologist,     19:1 – 15.

Byrne, R. & Walsh, C. (2002). Contradictions and counterfactuals: Generating     belief revisions in conditional inference. Proceedings of the 24th Annual     Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum     Associates.

Calcaterra, A., Antonietti, A., & Underwood, J. (2005). Cognitive style,     hypermedia navigation and learning. Computers & Education, 44, 441-457.     www.elsevier.com/locate/compedu

Cherniss, C., & Goleman, D. (1998). Bringing emotional intelligent to the     workplace. A technical report of the Consortium for Research on Emotional     Intelligence in Organizations.

Chris Thornton (2002). “An Interaction: Creativity, Cognition and Knowledge”     Terry Dartnall (Ed.); Praeger, London, 2002, 337 pages.

Christensen, J.E. (1981a). Curriculum, Education and Educology, Sydney,     Educology Research Associates.

Christensen, J.E. (1981b). Education and Human Development: A study in     Educology, Sydney, Educology Research Associates.

Christensen, J.E. (ed.) (1981c). Perspectives on Education as Educology,     Washington, D.C., university Press of. America.

Clarke, A., & Erickson, G. (2007). The nature of teaching and learning in self-    study. In J. John Loughran et al. (eds), International handbook of self-study of     teaching and teacher education practices. 41 – 67. Springer.

Conway, M. (ed) (1997). Cognitive models of memory. Cambridge, MA: MIT     Press.

Costa, A. and Lowery, L (1989). Techniques for teaching thinking. Pacific     Grove, CA: Midwest.

Dartnall, T. (2007). Review of An Interaction: Creativity, Cognition and     Knowledge, Terry Dartnall (Ed.); Praeger, London, 2002, 337 pages, Cognitive     Systems Research, 8 (2007) 300 – 303, www.sciencedirect.com.

Das, J. P. (2008). Planning and decision making: Beware of emotions and     illusions. The Journal of Entrepreneurship, 17, 1, Sage Publications.

Das, J. P., & Naglieri, J. A. (1997).  Naglieri-Das Cognitive Assessment System.     Allyn & Bacon.

Das, J. P., Naglieri, J. A., & Kirby, J. R. (1994). The assessment of cognitive     processes: The PASS theory of intelligence. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Das, J. P., Naglieri, J. A., & Kirby, J. R. (1994). The assessment of cognitive     processes: The PASS theory of intelligence. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Davidson, J.E., Deuser, R., and Sternberg, R.J. (1994). The role of metacognition     in problem solving. In J. Metcalfe and A. P. Shimamura eds. Metacognition     207-226. Cam­bridge, MA: The MIT Press.

De Stefano & LeFevre, 2007. Cognitive load in hypertext reading: a review.     Computers in Human Behavior, 23, 1616-1641.

Derk Partridge and John Rowe (2002). “An Interaction: Creativity, Cognition and     Knowledge” Terry Dartnall (Ed.); Praeger, London, 2002, 337 pages.

Derry, S. J. (1989). Strategy and Expertise in Solving Word Problems. In C. B.     McCormick, G. E. Miller, and M. Press­ley eds. Cognitive Strategy Research:     From Basic Research to Educational Applications, 269-302. Berlin: Springer-    Verlag.

Dominowski, R. L. (1998). Verbalization and problem solv­ing. In D. L. Hacker, J.     Dunlosky, and A Graesser (Eds.), Metacognition in educational theory and     practice (pp. 25-45). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Donald M. Peterson (2002). “An Interaction: Creativity, Cognition and     Knowledge” Terry Dartnall (Ed.); Praeger, London, 2002, 337 pages.

Donald, M. (1993). Precis of “Origins of the modern mind: Three stages in the     evolution of culture and cognition”. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 16, 739-    791.

Dörner, D. (1979). Self-Reflection and Problem-solving. In F. Klix ed. Human     and Artificial Intelligence, 101-107. Amsterdam: North Holland.

Dunlosky, J., & Metcalfe, J. (2009). Metacognition. Sage Publications, Inc.

Estrada, C. A., Isen, A. M., & Young, M. J. (1994). Positive affect improves     creative problem solving and influences reported source of practice satisfaction     in physicians. Motivation and Emotion, 18, 285–299.

Feuerstein's (1990). See Oon-Seng Tan (2007). Problem-based learning     pedagogies: Psychological processes and enhancement of intelligences.     Educational Research Policy Prac. 6: 107 – 114, online DOI 10.1007/s 1067–    007–9014–1, © 2007 Springer Publication Ltd.

Flavell, J. H. (1971). First Discussant’s Comments: What Is Memory     Development the Development of? Human Devel­opment 14: 272-278.

Fodor, J. (1983). The modularity of the mind. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.

Fodor, J. A. (2001), ‘The Mind Doesn’t Work that Way: The Scope and Limits of     Computational Psychology’. Bradford books/MIT Press.

Forbus, K. and Hinrichs, T. (2004). Companion Cognitive Systems: A step     towards human-level AI. In AAAI Fall Symposium on Achieving Human-level   Intelligence through Integrated Systems and Research, October, Washington,     DC.

Forbus, K., Gentner, D. and Law, K. (1994). MAC/FAC: A model of similarity-    based retrieval. Cognitive Science, 19 (2), 141 – 205. .

Forrest-Pressley, D. L., MacKinnon, G. E., and Waller, T. G. eds. (1985).     Metacognition, Cognition and Human Perfor­mance (Vol. 2, Instructional     Practices). New York: Aca­demic Press.

Gagné, R. M. (1977). The conditions of learning, Third edition. New York: Holt,     Rinehart and. Winston.

Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st     century. New York: Basic Books.

Garner, R. (1987). Metacognition and reading comprehen­sion. Norwood, NJ:     Ablex Publishing Corporation.

Gentner, D. & Markman, A. (1997). Structure mapping in analogy and similarity.     American Psychologist 52, 45-56.

Goldman (2009). Commentary: Explorations of relationships among learners,     tasks, and learning. Learning and Instruction, 19(5), 451-454.

Goldman, A. (2000). Folk Psychology and Mental Concepts. Protosociology 14,     4-25.

Goleman, D., (1999). Engineers need emotional IQ. Engng. News Record, 242,     18, 167.

Gopnik, A. & Meltzoff, A. (1997). Words, Thoughts and Theories. Cambridge,     Mass.: Bradford, MIT Press.

Gordon, A. and Hobbs, J. (2003). Coverage and Competency in Formal Theories:     A Commonsense Theory of Memory. Proceedings of the 2003 AAAI Spring     Symposium on Logical Formalizations of Commonsense Reasoning, Stanford     University, March 24-26, 2003.

Graesser, Chipman & King, 2008. Computer mediated technologies. In J. M.     Spector, M. D. Merrill, J. J. G. van Merriënboer, & M. P. Driscoll (Eds.),     Handbook of research on educational communications and    technology (pp.     211-224). London: Taylor & Francis.

Gratch, J. & Marsella, S. (2004). A Domain-independent Framework for Modeling     Emotion, Journal of Cognitive Systems Research 5(4), 269-306.

Gray, J. R., et al (2002). Integration of emotion and cognition in the lateral     prefrontal contex. PNAS, 99: 4115-120.

Guilford, J. P. (1975). Creativity: A quarter of century of progress. In I. A. Taylor     & J. W. Getzels (Eds.), Perspectives in creativity (pp. 37–59). Chicago: Aldine     Publishing Company.

Gutbezahl, J., & Averill, J. R. (1996). Individual differences in emotional     creativity as manifested in words and pictures. Creativity Research Journal, 9,     327–337.

Halford and Wilson (2002). “An Interaction: Creativity, Cognition and     Knowledge” Terry Dartnall (Ed.); Praeger, London, 2002, 337 pages.

Harackiewicz, J. H., Barron, K. E., Pintrich, P. R., Elliot, A. J., & Thrash, T. M.     (2002). Revision of achievement goal theory: necessary and illuminating.     Journal of Educational psychology, 92, 316-330.

Helson, R., & Srivastava, S. (2002). Creative and wise people: Similarities,     differences, and how they develop. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,     28, 1430-1440.

Hilgard, E. & Bower, G. (1956). Theories of Learning. New York: Appleton-    Century-Crofts.

Hobbs, J. & Gordon, A. (2005). Toward a Large-Scale Formal Theory of     Commonsense Psychology for Metacognition. Proceedings of the 2005 AAAI     Spring Symposium on Metacognitive Computing. March 21-23, Stanford, CA.

Hunt, E. (1997) “The Status of the Concept of Intelligence.” Japanese     Psychological Research, 39(1): 1-11.

Hunt, E. (April, 2008). Personal Communication.

Isen, A. M. (1999). Positive affect and creativity. In S. W. Russ (Ed.), Affect,     creative experience, and psychological adjustment (pp. 3–17). Philadelphia:     Brunel/Mazel.

Ivcevic, Z., Brackett, M. A., & Mayer, J. D. (2007).  Emotional intelligence and     emotional creativity.   Journal of Personality, Blackwell Publishing, Inc. DOI:     10.1111/j.1467-6494.

Jacobs, P. A., & Newstead, S. E. (2000). The nature and development of student     motivation. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 70, 243-254.

Jacqueline, V. & Pace Paul, J. ( 2008). Integrating Knowledge, Feelings and     Action: Using Vee Heuristics and Concept Mapping in Education for     Sustainable Development Concept Mapping: Connecting Educators Proc. of the     Third Int. Conference on Concept Mapping A. J. Cañas, P. Reiska, M. Åhlberg     & J. D. Novak, Eds. Tallinn, Estonia & Helsinki, Finland.

Jaeger, A. J. (2003). Job competencies and the curriculum: An inquiry into     emotional intelligence in graduate professional education. Research in Higher     Education, Vol. 44, No. 6, Human Sciences Press. Inc.

Jensen, A. R. (March, 2008). Personal Communication.

Jensen, A.R. (2006). Clocking the mind: Mental Chronometry and Individual     Differences. Oxford, UK: Elsevier.

John E. Hummel and Keith J. Holyoak (2002). “An Interaction: Creativity,     Cognition and Knowledge” Terry Dartnall (Ed.); Praeger, London, 2002, 337     pages.

Johnston, C.A. (1996). Unlocking the Will to Learn. California: Corwin Press.

Johnston, C.A. (1998). Let Me Learn. California: Corwin Press.

Jonassen, D.H. (2004) . Handbook of research on educational communications     and  technology (2^nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Jung, R. E., & Haier, R. A. (2007). The parieto-frontal integration theory (P-FIT)     of intelligence: Converging neuroimaging evidence. Behavioral and Brain     Sciences.

Kalyuga, S. (2009). Knowledge Elaboration: a cognitive load perspective.     Learning and Instruction, 19(5), 402-410.

Karmiloff–Smith, A. (1992), ‘Beyond Modularity–A Developmental Perspective     on Cognitive Science’. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Kirton, M.J., (1987). Adaptors and innovators: Cognitive style and personality, in     S.G. Isaksen (Ed). Frontiers of creative research: Beyond the basic, Buffalo,     NY: Bearly Limited, pp. 282-304.

Krathwohl, D. R.(1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification     of Educational Goals: Handbook II: Affective Domain, New York, David     McKay Company, Inc.

Kuyper, H., Van der Werf, M. P. C., & Lubbers, M. J. (2000). Motivation, meta-    cognition and self-regulation as predictors of long term educational attainment.     Educational Research and Evaluation, 6 (3), 181-206.

Leake, D. (1995). Abduction, Experience, and Goals: A Model of Everyday     Abductive Explanation. The Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Artificial     Intelligence 7, 407-428.

Leu & Kinzer, 2000. The convergence of literacy instruction with networked     technologies for information and communication. Reading Research Quarterly,     35, 108-127.

Levin, D. T., and Beck, M. R. (2004). Thinking about Seeing: Spanning the Difference     between Metacognitive Failure and Success. In D. T. Levin ed. Thinking and Seeing,     121-143. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.

Lizzio, A. and Wilson, K. and Simons, R. (2002). University students' perceptions     of the learning environment and academic outcomes: implications for theory     and practice. Studies in Higher Education, 27(1), 27-53.

Lubart, T. I. (1994). Creativity. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Thinking and problems     solving (pp. 289–332). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Lubart, T. I., & Sternberg, R. J. (1995). An investment approach to creativity:     Theory and data. In S. M. Smith, T. B. Ward, & R. A. Finke (Eds.), The     creative cognition approach (pp. 269–302). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Maclellan, E. & Soden, R. (2004) The importance of epistemic cognition in     student-centred learning. Instructional Science 32, 253-268. Kluwer Academic     Publishers, Netherlands.

Major and palmer, (2001). Assessing the effectiveness of problem-based     learning in higher civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge University Press.

Mayer, 2005a. Cognitive theory of multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.).     The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (pp. 31 –    48). New York:     Cambridge University, Press.

Mayer, J. D., and Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional intelligence? In: Salovey,     P., and Sluyter, D. J. (eds.), Emotional Development and Emotional     Intelligence, Basic Books, New York, pp. 3-31.

Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., Caruso, D. R., & Sitarenios, G. (2003). Measuring     emotional intelligence with the MSCEIT V2.0. Emotion, 3, 97–105.

Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia comprehension. New York: Cambridge     University Press.

Mayer, R. E. (2005b). Multimedia learning. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge     University Press.

McGraw and Douglas Hofstadter (2002). “An Interaction: Creativity, Cognition     and Knowledge” Terry Dartnall (Ed.); Praeger, London, 2002, 337 pages.

Meyer, D. K., & Turner, J. C. (2002). Discovering emotion in classroom     motivation research. Educational Psychologist, 37(2), 107-114.

Moreno, R. (2009). Constructing knowledge with an agent-based instructional     program: a comparison of cooperative and individual meaning-making.     Learning and Instruction 19(5), 433-444.

Morrison, (2004). Where now for problem based learning? The Lancer, 363,     174.

Nagarjuna G. (2006). Layers in the Fabric of Mind: A Critical Review of     Cognitive Ontogeny (Review Talk). Homi Bhabha Centre for Science     Education, TIFR, Mumbai, India.

Nelson et al. (2004). Bringing problem-based learning to life using virtual     reality. Nurse Education Today, 3, 1-6.

Nelson, T. O., and Narens, L. (1992). Metamemory: A Theo­retical Framework     and New Findings. In T. O. Nelson ed. Metacognition: Core Readings, 9-24.     Boston: Allyn and Bacon. (Originally published in 1990).

Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human problem solving. Englewood     chiffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Nichols, S. and Stich, S. (2002). How to Read Your Own Mind: A Cognitive     Theory of Self-Consciousness. In Q. Smith and A. Jokic. (eds.) Consciousness:     New Philosophical Essays. Oxford University Press.

Novak, J. D. (1998). Learning, Creating, and Using Knowledge: Concept Maps as     Facilitative Tools in Schools and Corporations. Mahweh, NJ: Lawrence     Erlbaum Associates.

Tan, O.S. (2007). Psychological Studies, National Institute of Education,     Nanyang Technological University, Nanyang Walk, Singapore.

Jamieson, P., Dane, J. and Lippman, P.C. (2005). Moving Beyond the     Classroom: Accommodating the Changing Pedagogy of Higher Education:     Refereed Proceedings of 2005 Forum of the Australasian Association for     Institutional Research. Baywood Publishing Company, Inc. 26 Austin     Avenue, Box 337, Amityville, NY 11701.

Paas, F., Renkl, A., & Sweller, J. (2003). Cognitive load theory and instructional     design: recent developments. Educational Psychologist, 38, 1-4.

Palfai, T. P., & Salovey, P. (1993). The influence of depressed and elated mood on     deductive and inductive reasoning. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 13,     57–71.

Piaget, J. (1971). “The theory of stages in cognitive development”, In D. Green,     M. Ford, and G. Flamer, (eds.), Measurement and Piaget, New York,     McGraw-Hill, 1–7.

Pintrich, P. R. (2000). The role of goal orientation in self-regulated learning. In     M., Boekaerts & P. R., Pintrich (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp.451-    502). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Pintrich, R.R. & DeGroot, E.V. (1990). Motivational and self-regulated learning     components of classroom academic performance, Journal of Educational     Psychology, 82(1), 33-40.

Prinz, J.J., & Barsalou, L.W (2006). “An Interaction: Creativity, Cognition and     Knowledge” Terry Dartnall (Ed.); Praeger, London, 2002, 337 pages.

Pryor, L. & Colllins, G. (1992). Reference Features as guides to reasoning about     opportunities. Proceedings of the Fourteenth Annual Conference of the     Cognitive Science Society, Bloomington, IN. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum     Associates.

Ram, A., and Leake, D. (1995). Learning, Goals, and Learn­ing Goals. In A. Ram     and D. Leake eds. Goal-Driven Learning, 1-37. Cambridge, MA: MIT     Press/Bradford Books.

Rattermann, M., Spector, L., & Grafman, J. (2001). Total and partial-order     planning: Evidence from normal and prefrontally damaged populations.         Cognitive Science, 25, 941-975.

Resnick, L. (1987). Education and learning to think. Washington, DC

Richard McDonough (2002). “An Interaction: Creativity, Cognition and     Knowledge” Terry Dartnall (Ed.); Praeger, London, 2002, 337 pages.

Riemer, M. J., ( 2003). The impact of emotional intelligence on communication in     engineering education. Proc. 6^th UICEE Annual Cof. On Engng. Educ., Cairns,     Australia, 203-206.

Runco, M. A., & Albert, R. S. (1986). The threshold theory regarding creativity     and intelligence: An empirical test with gifted and nongifted children. Creative     Child and Adult Quarterly, 14, 212–218.

Salden, Paas, & Van Merriënboer, (2006). Personalised adaptive task selection     in air traffic control: effects on training efficiency and transfer. Learning     and     Instruction, 16, 350-362.

Schank, R. (1982). Dynamic Memory: A theory of reminding and learning in     computers and people. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Scheiter et al. (2009). The impact of learner characteristics on information     utilization strategies, cognitive load experienced, and performance in     hypermedia learning. Learning and Instruction, 19(5), 387-401.

Schneider, W. (1987). Connectionism: Is it a paradigm shift for psychology?     Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 19, 73-83.

Schnotz, W. (2005). An integrated model of text and picture comprehension. In     R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (pp. 49-    69). New York: Cambridge University, Press.

Schnotz, W., & Kürschner, C. (2007). A reconsideration of cognitive load     theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(4), 469-508.

Schnotz, W., & Kürschner, C. (2007). A reconsideration of cognitive load theory.     Educational Psychology Review, 19(4), 469 - 508.

Schnotz, W., & Rasch, T. (2009). Interactive and non-interactive pictures in     multimedia learning environments: effect on learning outcomes and learning     efficiency. Learning and Instruction, 19(5), 411-422.

Schut et al., (2004). The Theory and Practice of Intention Reconsideration.     Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence, vol. 16(4),     2004, pp. 261-293.

Segers, E., & Verhoeven, L. (2009). Learning in a sheltered internet     environment: the use of WebQuests. Learning and Instruction, 19(5), 423-    432.

Shastri, L. & Ajjanagadde, V. (1993). From simple associations so systematic     reasoning: A connectionist representation of rules, variables, and dynamic     bindings using temporal synchrony. Behavioral & Brain Sciences, 16, 417-494.

Singh, P. (2005). EM-ONE: An Architecture for Reflective Commonsense     Thinking. Ph.D. dissertation. Department of Electrical Engineering and     Computer Science. Massachu­setts Institute of Technology. Boston, MA.

Sloman, S. & Lagnado, D. (2005). Do We “do”? Cognitive Science 29, 5-39.

Stein, L. (1997). Postmodular systems: Architectural principles for cognitive     robotics. Cybernetics and Systems 28(6), 471-487.

Steiner, E. (1978). Logical and conceptual Analytic Techniques for educational     researchers. Washington, D.C., University Press of America

Sternberg, R. (1985). Implicit theories of intelligence, creativity, and wisdom.     Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 607-627.

Sternberg, R. (2001). What is the common thread of creativity? Its dialectical     relation to intelligence and wisdom. American Psychologist, 56, 360-362.

Sternberg, R. J. (1985). Beyond IQ: A triarchic theory of intelligence. Cambridge:     Cambridge University Press.

Sternberg, R. J. (1998). How intelligent is intelligence testing? Scientific     American Presents 9(4): 12-17.

Sternberg, R. J. (2005). The triarchic theory of successful intelligence. In D. P.     Flanagan & P. L. Harrison (Eds.), Contemporary Intellectual Assessment. New     York: Guilford Publications, Inc.

Swanson, H. L. (1990). Influence of metacognitive knowl­edge and aptitude on     problem solving. Journal of Educa­tional Psychology, 82(2), 306-314.

Sweller, J. (2003). Evolution of Human cognitive architecture. In B. Ross     (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation, Vol. 43 (pp. 215 – 266).     San Diego, CA: Academic.

Sweller, J. (2004). Instructional design consequences of an analogy between     evolution by natural selection and human cognitive architecture.     Instructional Science, 32, 9 – 31.

Sweller, J. (2005) Implications of Cognitive Load Theory for Multimedia     Learning. In R.E. Mayer (Ed) The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia     Learning. New York:Cambridge University Press.

Tan, O.S. (2003, 2005). Problem-based learning: The future frontiers., p-17-32,     In Tan, K., Lee, M., Mok, J. & Ravindran, R. (Eds.). Problem-based Learning:     New directions and approaches. Singapore: Learning Academy, Temasek     Centre for Problem-based Learning.

Tan, O.S. (2003). Problem-based learning innovation: Using problems to power     learning in the 21^st century. Singapore: Thomson Learning.

Tan, O.S.(2004a). Editorial. Special issue: Challenges of problem-based learning.     Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 41(2), 123-124.

Dartnall, T. (2002). “An Interaction: Creativity, Cognition and Knowledge”     Terry Dartnall (Ed.); Praeger, London, 2002, 337 pages.

Dartnall, T. (2007). See “Review of An Interaction: creativity, cognition and     knowledge”, (Terry Darnall (Ed.); Praeger, London, 2002, 337 pages), Action     editor: Stefan Wermter and Richa Yadav, online doi: 10.1016/j.cogsys.     2007.02.002, © 2007 Elsevier.

Thagard, P., (1996). Mind: Introduction to Cognitive Science, Cambridge, MA:     MIT Press. Second edition in press.

Thorndike, E. (1913). Educational Psychology: The Psychology of Learning. New     York: Teachers College Press.

Torrance, E. P. (1975). Creativity research in education: Still alive. In I. A. Taylor     & J. W. Getzels (Eds.), Perspectives in creativity (pp. 278–296). Chicago:     Aldine Publishing Company.

Torrance, E. P. (1993). Understanding creativity: where to start? Psychological     Inquiry, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 232 – 234.

Van Merriënboer, J. & Sweller, J. (2005). Cognitive load theory and complex     learning: recent developments and future directions. Educational     psychology     Review, 17, 147 – 177.

Verhoeven et al. (2006). Toward interactive literacy education in the     Netherlands. In M. C. McKenna, L. D. Labbo, R. D. Kieffer, & D. Reinking     (Eds.), International handbook of literacy and technology (pp. 41-53).     Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Verhoeven, L. & Perfetti, C. (2008). Advances in text comprehension: Model,     process and development. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 22, 293 – 301.

Verhoeven, L., & Graesser, A. (2008). Cognitive and linguistic factors in     interactive knowledge construction. Discourse Processes, 45, 289-297.

Vollmeyer, R., & Rheinberg, F. (2000). Does motivation affect learning via     persistence? Learning and Instruction, 4, 293-309.

Vygotsky (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological     processes (M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman, Eds, &     Trans.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press (original works     published 1930-33).

Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and language (E. Hanfmann & G. Vakar, Eds     & Trans.). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.

Walton, A. P. (2003). ‘The impact of interpersonal factors on creativity’,     International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour and Research, Vol. 9, pp.     146-162.

Ward, T. B. (2004). ‘Cognition creativity and entrepreneurship’, Journal of     Business Venturing, Vol. 19, pp. 173-188.

Ward, T.B. (2004) Cognition, creativity and entrepreneurship, Journal of Business     Venturing, Vol. 19, pp.173–188.

Wellman, H. M. (1983). Metamemory Revisited. In M. T. H. Chi ed.     Contributions to Human Development. Vol. 9 (Trends in memory development     research). Basel, Switzer­land: S. Karger, AG.

Wellman, H. M. (1992). The Child's Theory of Mind. Cam­bridge, MA: MIT Press.

Wimmer, H. & Perner, J. (1983). Beliefs about beliefs: Representation and     constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children’s understanding of     deception. Cognition 13, 103-128.

Wolters, C. A., & Pintrich, P. R. (1998). Contextual differences in student     motivation and self-regulated learning in mathematics, English, and Social     Studies classrooms. Instructional-Science, 26(1,2), 27-47.

    www.elsevier.com/locate/learninstruc

Zachary. W., et al., (1998). Cognitive task analysis and modeling of decision     making in complex environments, In Cannon-Bowers, J. & Salas, E. (Eds)     Making decisions under stress: Implications for individual and team training.     (pp. 315-344). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association.

Zelezny, L. (1999). Educational interventions that improve environmental     behaviours: a meta-analysis. The Journal of Environmental Education     31 (1), 5-14.

Submitted by

DR. ATASI MOHANTY

CENTRE FOR EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY