4. Speak about the system of consonants. Modification of consonant phonemes in speech. Analyze the words: breadth, quaint, give me, picture, all this, that’s

Classification of Sokolova and Tikhonov

The factor of their classification is the degree of noise. There are 2 classes of consonants:

• noise

• sonorants

Sonorants are the most debated consonants. The point is (факт в том) that they are pronounced differently from all other consonants. There air passage (поток воздуха) between organs of speech is very wide, much wider than in the production of other consonants. As a result we hear not noise but tone so sonorants sound more like vowels than consonants. Some British phoneticians refer them to the class of semivowels [w] [j] [r]. Soviet and Russian phoneticians think that these are consonants.

Resume: there are 2 factors that are most important in classification of sounds

• degree of noise

• manner of articulation

The place of articulation is another very important characteristic of English consonants. According to it all English consonant can be classified into:

• labial (губные)

• lingual (смычные)

• glottal (гортанные)

Labial can be subdivided into:

• bilabial

• labio-dental

Lingual are subdivided into:

• forelingual (передне-язычный)

• mediolingual

• backlingual

Modifications of consonants in connected speech

Till now we have looked at sounds individually but in everyday speech sounds are very seldom pronounced as separate units. Speech is performed in larger units: words, phrases and texts. There are very big differences between pronouncing a word in isolation and a word in connected speech. There is a problem of defining the phonetic status of sounds in connected speech. As a result there are some processes of phonetic changes in connected speech:

1. assimilation;

2. accommodation;

3. vowel reduction;

4. elision.

Assimilation is the adaptive modification of a consonant by neighboring sound:

eighth - at three

alveolar [t] becomes dental [Ɵ]

Accommodation is the adaptation of sounds combinations of vowel-consonants type and consonant-vowel type:

never - man (consonant-vowel type)

nasal pronunciation of vowels

больно - конь - думать

Labialization of consonants is before labialized vowels.

Vowel reduction is a quantitative or qualitative weakening of vowels in unstressed positions:

board - blackboard

man - postman

Elision is a complete loss of sounds, both vowels and consonants. In informal speech we can lose many sounds. The process cannot be neglected in defining the phonemic status of speech sounds. These phenomena represent the economy of energy from the part of the speaker.

Manner of articulation is also changed as a result of assimilation.

Analyze the words: breadth, quaint, give me, picture, all this, that’s

Breadth - [d] alveolar + [ð] interdental = dental [d] elision

Quaint- adaptation

give me elision give me /’giv ‘mi / may turn into /’gi’mi/.

all this- regressive assimilation

that’s- regressive assimilation

picture- historical assimilation of [tj]

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2.”ONE MARK OF A GREAT EDUCATOR IS THE ABILITY TO LEAD STUDENTS OUT TO NEW PLACES WHERE EVEN THE EDUCATOR HAS NEVER BEEN”

The tangles of teaching have three important sources. The first two are commonplace, but the third, and most fundamental, is rarely given its due. First, the subjects we teach are as large and complex as life, so our knowledge of them is always flawed and partial. No matter how we devote ourselves to reading and research, teaching requires a command of content that always eludes our grasp. Second, the students we teach are larger than life and even more complex. To see them clearly and see them whole, and respond to them wisely in the moment, requires a fusion of Freud and Solomon that few of us achieve.

Teaching, like any truly human activity, emerges from one’s inwardness, for better or worse. As I teach, I project the condition of my soul onto my students, my subject, and our way of being together. The entanglements I experience in the classroom are often no more or less than the convolutions of my inner life. Viewed from this angle, teaching holds a mirror to the soul. If I am willing to look in that mirror, and not run from what I see, I have a chance to gain self-knowledge—and knowing myself is as crucial to good teaching as knowing my students and my subject.

We need to open a new frontier in our exploration of good teaching: the inner landscape of a teacher’s life. To chart that landscape fully, three important paths must be taken—intellectual, emotional, and spiritual—and none can be ignored. Reduce teaching to intellect and it becomes a cold abstraction; reduce it to emotions and it becomes narcissistic; reduce it to the spiritual and it loses its anchor to the world. Intellect, emotion, and spirit depend on each other for wholeness. They are interwoven in the human self and in education at its best, and we need to interweave them in our pedagogical discourse as well.

4. IN LINGUISTICS AND GRAMMAR, A PRONOUN IS A WORD OR FORM THAT SUBSTITUTES FOR A NOUN OR NOUN PHRASE. It is a particular case of a pro-form. Pronouns have traditionally been regarded as one of the parts of speech, but some modern theorists would not limit them to a single class because of the variety of functions they perform, including that of the personal pronouns, relative pronouns, interrogative pronouns, demonstrative pronouns and indefinite pronouns.[1]:1–34The use of pronouns often involves anaphora, where the meaning of the pronoun is dependent on another referential element. This applies particularly to the (third-person) personal pronouns. The referent of the pronoun is often the same as that of a preceding (or sometimes following) noun phrase, called the antecedent of the pronoun. For example, in the sentence That poor man looks as if he needs a new coat, the antecedent of the pronoun he is the noun phrase that poor man. (Pronouns used without antecedents are sometimes called un pre cursed pronouns.)

-a ‘part of speech’

- very different from other lexical-grammatical classes of words:

(1) semantically:

- have no denotational meaning, do not name objects of reality;

- have very general and unspecified semantics of indication (= deixis) which is

only actualised in context; - Semantic groups of Pronous:

– Personal ProN;

– Demonstrative ProN;

– Reflexive ProN;

– Reciprocal ProN;

– Possessive ProN;

– Indefinite ProN;

– Relative ProN;

– Interrogative ProN.

(2) morphologically:

o Only a few pronouns are variable while most are not:

o Personal Pronouns have the morphological o Personal Pronouns have the morphological

-- – the Common – Object – Genitive case forms with incomplete paradigms --Demonstrative and Personal Pronouns have the morphological Category of

Number

(3) syntactically: o have no syntactic functions of their own; substitute for words of other classes

(= are used in their functions) Syntactic groups of ProN:

– Adjective-Pronouns (= Adjectivized ProN).

o With some pronouns there is no substitution:

– I, you, they, ‘dummy’ it.

an extremely heterogeneous class, but it has two defining characteristics

which unite the class of pronouns and make it different from all the other word

classes:

– no lexical meaning but semantics of indication;

– no syntactic roles of their own but the function of substitution.

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