30. Metonymical group.

Metonymy as a secondary nomination unit is based on the real association of the object of nomination with the object whose name is transferred. The simplest kind of metonymy is lexical metonymy, when the name of an object (most often, a proper name) is transferred to another object (Makintosh, volt, amper).Such metonymies have no stylistic value as they become common nouns. Stylistic metonymy suggests a new, unexpected association between the two objects. In metonymy, the associations between the object named and the object implied vary. They may bring together some features of a person and the person him/herself; an article of clothing and the person wearing it; an instrument and the action it performs; the two object whose functions coincide. E.g. She was a sunny, happy sort of creature. Too fond of the bottle . Synecdoche is a variety of metonymy in which the transfer is based on the association between a part and the whole, the singular and the plural. This type of metonymical relationship may be considered a quantitative one, e.g. Since I left you, mine eye is in my mind.

Metonymy and synecdoche as genuine EM are used to achieve concreteness of description. By mentioning only one seemingly insignificant feature or detail connected with the object, person, or phenomenon, the author draws the reader's attention to it and makes him/her visualize the object or the character he describes. Periphrasis is a stylistic figure of substitution which are based on substituting a word for a word combination.Periphrasis both names and describes. Every periphrasis indicates a feature which the speaker or writer wants to stress and often conveys an individual perception of the object or phenomenon named, e.g. The hospital was crowded with the surgically interesting- products, the wounded of the fighting in Africa (I. Shaw).periphrasis is widely used in the publicistic style as a means of additional expressiveness. Euphemism is a variety of periphrasis which is used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more acceptable one.Euphemisms may be divided into several groups according to the spheres ofusage: 1) religious euphemisms: God may be replaced by Goodness, Lord, Love, Heaven etc.; Devil - by the dence, the dickens, old Nick, old Harry;2) euphemisms connected with death: to join the majority, to pass away, to go the way of all flesh, to go west, to breathe one's last, to expire, to depart, the deceased, the departed, the late (for the dead).3) political euphemisms, widely used in mass media: undernourishment for starvation, less fortunate elements for the poor, economic tunnel for the crisis etc.Their stylistic function is to express disregard, hatred, impatience and other emotions of this kind.

31. Irony.

Irony (Greek: eironeia - concealed mockery). It is positive in form but negative in meaning.

In a narrow sense, irony is the use of a word having a positive meaning to express a negative one. In a wider sense, irony is an utterance which formally shows a positive or neutral attitude of the speaker to the object of conversation but in fact expresses a negative evaluation of it, e.g. She was a gentle woman, and this, of course, is a very fine thing to be; she was proud of it (in quite a gentlewomanly way), and was in the habit of saying that gentlefolk were gentlefolk, which, if you come to think of it, is a profound remark.In oral speech, a word used ironically is strongly marked by intonation and other paralinguistic means. In written speech, such markers are not easily found.Language irony comprises words, word-combinations and utterances which, due to regular usage, have acquired connotative ironical meaning which does not depend on the context, e.g. to orate, a speechmaker, too clever by half mutual admiration society.Irony is an expressive means based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meanings - dictionary and contextual, but the two meanings stand in opposition to each other.

Irony must not be confused with humour, although they have very much in common. Humour always causes laughter. What is funny must come as a sudden clash of the positive and the negative. In this respect irony can be likened to humour. But the function of irony is not confined to producing a humorous effect. In a sentence like "How clever of you!" where, due to the intonation pattern, the word 'clever' conveys a sense opposite to its literal signification, the irony does not cause a ludicrous effect. It rather expresses a feeling of irritation, displeasure, pity or regret. Types of irony:1)In verbal irony, for example, we say the opposite of what we mean. When someone says "That was a brilliant remark" and we know that it was not brilliant, we understand the speaker's ironic intention. In such relatively simple instances there is usually no problem in perceiving irony. In more complex instances, however, the designation of an action or a remark as ironic can be much more complicated. 2)Besides verbal irony - in which we understand the opposite of what a speaker says fiction makes use of irony of circumstance (sometimes called irony of situation). Irony of circumstance or situation also refers to occasions when an individual expects one thing to occur only to discover that the opposite happens.

 32. Figures of combination. Figures of combination are stylistically relevant semantic means of combining lexical, syntactical and other units (including EM) belonging to the same or different language levels. The realization of figures of combination is possible only in context. There are three basic types of semantic relations between words, phrases and utterances:

1.     Figures of identity are based on synonymous relations between these units. 2.     Figures of opposition are based on antonymous meanings of language units which are combined together. 3.     Figures of non-identity – one can find both combinations with antonymous and synonymous meanings.

Figures of identity include simile, synonyms-substitutes, synonyms-specifiers. Figures of opposition include antithesis, oxymoron. Figures of non-identity include climax, anticlimax, pun, zeugma.

 33. Figures of equivalence.

Simile is a partial identification of two objects belonging to different classes. In the result of such identification a new image appears. Simile is a peculiar syntactic construction in which we can find such formal markers as: look like, as….as, as….if, as….so. Simile should not be confused with logical comparison. Logical comparison – her hair as so beautiful as her mother’s, but Her hair is like straw – this is simile. We should distinguish the type of simile which is called implied simile. It can be recognized due to such words as: to resemble, to remain, to have resemblance.  Synonyms-substitutes are words which help to avoid monotonous repetition. Sometimes they carry some additional information, but not very much. Woman-female, feeling-emotion-sentiment.  Synonyms-specifiers  are used as a chain of words to give a more detailed description of a certain object, and every other synonyms carry additional information. Such words are called synonymic variation, they intensify the utterance, e.g. the intent of which perjury being to rob a poor native widow and her helpless family of a plantation-patch, their only stay and support in their bereavement and desolation. Synonyms-specifiers  can be used a pairs of words: his answer was quick and sharp.

 34. Figures of non-equivalence.

Climax is a structure in which every successive word, phrase or word-combination is emotionally stronger or logically more important then the preceding one, e.g. They looked at hundreds of houses, they claimed thousands of stairs, they inspected the innumerous of kitchen. Anticlimax is a structure in which every successive words, phrase or word-combination is emotionally or logically less strong. E.g. The harsh sobs came to cleansing weeping  and then to gentle tears, slipping down my cheeks. Pun is understood  as play of words, it is a stylistic device based on polysemy, homonymy, or phonetic similarity to achieve a humorous effect. There are several kinds of pun:

1.     Pun is based on polysemy, e.g. They had the appearance of men to whom life had appeared as a reversible coat – seamy on both sides. 2.     Pun is based on phonetic similarity, e.g. After looking over his son’s report card, father said: : “Bob, if you had a little more spunk, you’d stand better in your grades. And by the way, do you know what spunk is? ” – “Sure, Dad. It’s the past participle of spank.”  

 Zeugma are parallel constructions with unparallel meanings. In these constructions the basic element, mostly predicate, is both  a part of phraseological  unit and a free-word combination.  E.g. He left the party in the low mood and in the Cadillac.

 35. Figures of opposition.

Antithesis is a stylistic devise which presents two contrasting ideas in close proximity in order to stress the contrast. There are several variants of antithesis based on different relations of the ideas expressed:

1.     Opposition of features possessed by the same referant,e.g. Some people have much to live on, and little to live for. 2.     Opposition of two or more different referents having contrasting features, e.g. Their pre-money wives did not go together with their post-money daughters. 3.     Opposition of referents having not only contrasting features but embracing a wider range of features.

Antithesis performs various stylistic functions: stressing the contrast rhythmically organizing the utterance.  Oxymoron is a combination of two words having opposite meanings. These meanings exclude each other. The function is to reveal the contradictory sides of one and the same phenomena. E.g. She is my best enemy. Original oxymorons are created by authors to make the utterance emotionally charged, vivid and fresh. 

36. Text and some basic and initial notions of stylistics.

Stylistic as a branch of linguistics is based on a number of general notions that are used in all branches of linguistics. To the initial notions of stylistics the following notions are referred:

- language-speech-speech activity; - language and speech units; - paradigmatics and syntegmatics; - opposition and contrast; - marked and unmarked members of the opposition; - invariant and variant; - selection and combination.

 Basic notions of stylistics: style, norm, context, image and imagery, synonymy, stylistic and functional – stylistic meaning, expressive means(EM), stylistic devices(SD). The main unit of a written language is a text, whereas that of oral type is the utterance. They differ in many respects: in substance, functions, and their norms.

37. Categories of the text and their stylistic functions.

Categories of the text can be of the general character that is common for all types of texts and for each concrete text, and specific, that is peculiar for a definite type of the text. To the general text categories such notions as informaty, discretion, personality (impersonality), aim at the reader, text formation and text design, introductivity, inferativity and some other refer. Among specific categories we may distinguish such notions as implication, emotiveness, polyphony, tensity and others. Every text category is characterized and determined by the whole complex of obligatory properties. But the sets of the properties and their number in a concrete type of text or in the concrete text may vary. This create a definite functional – stylistic effect. The general text categories are of the semantic – structural character because they refer to both to the plane of the content and the plane of expression of the text. From the point of view of the structure text categories are built according to the functional – semantic principle. Text categories interact with one another. Their interaction is based on the principles of different tendencies present in text. A shift an interaction of text categories may be of great stylistic value.

 38. Integrity of the text.

Integrity is manifested in ability of the text to function as one integral unity, which is not equal to the sum of the elements that make this text.  Integrity of the text has two sides – semantic and formal-structural. This is reflected in two mutually connected aspects of the text – cohesion and coherence. Cohesion of the text is of the semantic character and presupposes, above all, semantic unity of the text. Cohesion of the text is created by interaction of the following factors:

1.     Presence of the communicative intention of the author; 2.     The uniting function of the image of the author; 3.     The uniting role of different types of foregrounding in the text; 4.     The uniting function of the image of the author; 5.     The uniting function of expressive means and stylistic devices, that are used simultaneously within one unit of the text and in the whole of the text; 6.     The compositional – genre unity.

The text has two types of modality: objective, reflecting the character of objective situations described in the text as real or unreal, and subjective modality that expresses the author’s attitude to the events and facts described. The pragmatic integrity of the text is illustrated very well by texts that are aimed at solving one communicative task. The beginning of the text is extremely important for creating its pragmatic integrity. The thematic integrity of the text is achieved through a general concept, or a general theme. By the theme of the text we understand its concentrated and abstracted general content.

 39. Discretion of the text.

The most typical division of the literary text from the linguo-stylistic point view is compositional-semantic: exposition, plot development, climax, denouement (upshot). Two other ways of division – substantial and functional – are also used when a stylistic aspect of the text is studied. Substantial division presupposes linear division of the text into the units of different size. Functional division is aimed at finding in the text the elements that have different function. Supra-phrasal unit (SPU) is used to denote a larger unit than a sentence. It generally comprises a number of sentences interdependent structurally and semantically. Another important unit, which appears in the result of substantial division is a paragraph. It is a graphical term used to name a group of sentences marked off by indentation at the beginning and a break in the line at the end. As a linguistic category the paragraph is a unit of utterance marked off by purely linguistic means: intonation, pauses of various length, semantic ties. Paragraph differs from a  supra-phrasal unity by a few parameters: a paragraph may contain a few themes; it may consist of one sentence, the so-called micro-paragraph; it may include a few SPU; a  paragraph has stylistical characteristics; it is shown in the text graphically. When SPU and paragraphs are united they make paragraph complexes. The borders of paragraph complexes may be marked and unmarked. Unmarked borders of paragraph complexes are pointed out by:

1.     Introduction of a new theme, change of time, setting, participants of the situation described in the text. 2.     Transition from the dialogue to the monologue and vice versa, transition from description to narration and vice versa; 3.     Thematic unity of text fragments; 4.     Graphical foregrounding.

Marked borders of paragraph complexes are shown usually by sentences oк micro-paragraphs of the introductory or generalizing character. Functional division of the text takes into consideration the communicative character of the text. It can be of three types:

1.     According to the compositional forms of speech present in the text, among them: description, narration, discourse, dialogue, monologue. 2.     Functional-communicative division that presupposes  pointing out text-making and text-shaping elements. 3.     Communicative-compositional, based on pointing out all kinds of communicative blocks.

Discretion as well as other general text categories may be of functional and stylistic value. In the belles-lettres text discretion  is mainly of the emotive-expressive character.