29. Metaphorical group. Syntactical and semantic differences of metaphor and metonymy. Types of metaphor.

Metaphorical group includes metaphor,epithet, antonomasia, persornification and allegory. Metaphor is a secondary nomination unit based on likeness, similarity or affinity (real or imaginary) of some features of two different objects. Metaphor is usually used in the predicate group, because it aims at individualization and characterization of the object.

Linguists distinguish four types of metaphor, the stylistic value of each type being different:

1) nominative metaphor, i.e. one name which is substituted for by another. The nominative metaphor gives a new name to a class of objects. Such metaphors are a mere technical device for extracting a new name from the old word-stock, e.g. the apple of the eye, a leg of the table, the arm of the clock, the foot of the hill, the nose of the plane;

2) cognitive metaphor is created as a result of the shift in the combinability of qualifying lexical units, when their meaning becomes more abstract. In this case, objects named are ascribed the features of quite different objects, sometimes even alien qualities, e.g. black night (water, heat, despair, heart, sins, lie etc.).It may be based on implied simile, e.g. Time flies (as a bird); The footpath led under the bridge; the thought had already come to her. This type of metaphor is a source of polysemy.

3) generalizing metaphor leads to polysemy as it destroys the borderline between different notions. In this case predicative lexical units undergo metaphorization and transform into identifying lexical units. E.g Аленка шоколадка, чай беседа.

4) figurative or image-bearing metaphor presupposes that identifying lexical units are transferred into the predicate-slot and, as a predicate, refer to other objects or a class of objects. Here, metaphor is a means of individualization, evaluation, and discrimination of the shades of meaning. Such metaphor appeals to the reader's intuition, giving him/her a chance to interpret the text creatively.

According to its structure, metaphor may be:

a)simple or elementary, which is based on the actualization of one or several features common for two objects, e.g. He is all hen and no cock (M. Abom); His voice was a dagger of corroded brass .

b) prolonged or sustained, which is not confined to one feature that forms the main, central image but also comprises other features linked with and developing this image in context, e.g. He was surprised that the fire which flashed from his eyes did not melt the glasses of the spectacles. According to the peculiarities of its semantics, metaphor may be trite (traditional, language), e.g.: The laugh in her eyes died out and was replaced by something else and genuine (speech).

Some linguists considers there is not much difference between trite and genuine metaphors since the mechanism of creating it is the same, that of transfer of the meaning.

The main function of figurative metaphor is not merely communicative but aesthetic. It appeals to imagination rather than gives information. Epithet can be modifined as the emovtive,evaluative attribute to a certain object.Epithet can always conveys attitude to the reader thus we can see the author’s attitude to this or that character, things, that he describes.It’s necessary to distinguish between logical attribute and epithet: a yellow table-logical; a green years-epithet.Epithet can be trite and genuine.Epithet can be fixed (connected with folklore: Marry Christmas,Happy Birthday, dead silence)and trasfered(e.g/magnificent weather, a dream like experience,a sleepless pillow).There are 7 ways of expressing epithet:1)single-by one word;2)in pairs:It was an old and tired town;3) in chains: 3 or more words;4) two steps epithet expressed by an Adv+an Adj: It was an unnaturally mild day.;5) by phrase: the sunshine- in - the breakfast - room smell"6)by an of phrase(N+of+Obj.):She was a woman of few words.She was a woman of intense emotion.7)inferted epithet( Obj.+of+ a+ N): The gost og a smile.A shadow of a smile.In inverted epithet we always have article a.

Antonomasia is a peculiar variety of metaphor. There are two types of antonomasia:

1) the usage of a proper name for a common noun (Ofhello, Romeo, Hamlet);

2) the_usage of common nouns or their parts as proper names (Mr. Snake, Mr. Backbite etc.), e.g. "Don't ask me", said Mr. Q\vl Eyes washing his hands off the whole matter. In both cases the second nomination is based on similarity (real or imaginary) between the two objects. Antonomasia of the first type is mainly used in colloquial speech. It's a stock phrase to characterize a person: he is a real Romeo. It is trite antonomasia. The second type of antonomasia is typical for fiction only. In a creative writing where all components form a certain system, the name of a character or characters is stylistically relevant, as it is one of the components of this system. E.g.(R. Sheridan: Captain Boastall, miss Careless:, G. Byron: Showman, Duke of Dash)The main stylistic function of antonomasia is to characterize a person simultaneously with naming him/her.

Personification is also a variety of metaphor. It is based on ascribing some features characteristic of a person to a thing. E.g: TV is athief og harts and memories. Personification: 1) is used only in fiction while metaphor can be found practically in every style;

2) can appear only within context, no matter how short.

Allegory is another variety of metaphor. The aim of allegory as an expressive means is to stress the logical meaning of speech by adding to it some emotive colouring. Allegory is a figure of substitution it consists in expression of some abstract idea through some concrete images.Allegory is a kind of hint.It is used in fary tales.Prober is most natural examples of allegory.e.g.To have money in one pocket-it’s to take a great risk. Metaphor and metonymy are universal means of secondary nomination. The difference between them is that while in metaphor transfer is realized on the basis of likeness (real or imaginary) of the two objects (e.g. He is a brick, a log, a bear) in case of metonymy it is realized on the basis of contiguity between the two objects (e.g. I like Beethoven; The walls of the room were hung with Rembrandt and Goya).The latest linguistic investigations prove that metaphorical and metonymical transfers differ not only semantically but syntactically and lexically as well. Metonymy is more often found in the subject and object groups, while metaphor is commonly found in the predicate group (e.g. The hat is still here. She is a monkey.) When metaphor is used as a subject, it takes on an anaphoric pronoun, e.g. He is a bear. That bear broke the vase.