2. Expressive means (em) and stylistic devices (sd)

All stylistic means of a language can be divided into expressive means (EM), which are used in some specific way, and special devices called stylistic devices (SD).

The expressive means of a language are those phonetic means, morphological forms, means of word-building, and lexical, phraseological and syntactical forms, all of which function in the language for emotional or logical intensification of the utterance. In most cases they have corresponding neutral synonymous forms. iuc^a т&»

The most powerful expressive means of any language are phonetic. Pitch, melody, stress, pausation, drawling, drawling out certain syllables, whispering, a sing-song manner of speech and other ways of using the voice are more effective than any other means in intensifying the utterance emotionally or logically.

Among the morphological expressive means the use of the Present Indefinite must be mentioned first. In describing some past event the author uses the present tense, thus achieving a more vivid picturisation of what was going on. - Historical Present.

The use of shall in the second and third person may also be regarded as an expressive means. Compare: He shall do it (— I shall make him do it). He has to do it (— It is necessary for him to do it).

Among word-building means we fmd a great many forms which serve to make the utterance more expressive and fresh or to intensify it. The dimirrutive suffixed as -y(ie), -let, e.g. dear - dearie, stream - streamlet, add some emotional colouring to the words.

At the lexical level there are a great many words which due to their inner expressiveness, constitute a special layer. The same can be said of the set expressions of the language. Proverbs and sayings form a considerable number of language units which serve to make speech more emphatic, mainly from the emotional point of view.

Finally at the syntactical level there are many constructions which, being set against synonymous ones, will reveal a certain degree of logical or emotional

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emphasis. In English language there are many syntactical patterns which serve to intensify emotional quality.

Stylistics observes not only the nature of an expressive means, but also its potential capacity of becoming a stylistic device.

Stylistic device is a conscious and intentional literary use of some of the facts of the language (including expressive means) in which the most essential features (both structural and semantic) of the language forms are raised to a generalized level and regarded as aiming at the further intensification of the emotional or logical emphasis contained in the corresponding expressive means.

3. Types of lexical meaning.

A number of stylistic devices are based on the peculiar use of lexical meanings. A word is a language sign that expresses a concept by its forms and meanings. By concept is meant an abstract or general idea of some phenomenon of objective reality including the subjective feelings and emotions of human beings. The forms of the word show its relation to the other words in a sentence. The meaning of a word is the means by which the concept is materialized. The word may have a number of meanings.

Three types of meaning can be distinguished: logical, emotive and nominal.

Logical meaning is the precise naming of a feature of the idea, phenomenon or object, the name by which we recognize the whole of the concept (direct meaning or referential meaning).

The potentiality of words can also be noted in regard to emotive meaning. Emotive meaning also materializes a concept in the word, but unlike logical meaning, emotive meaning has reference not directly to things or phenomena of objective reality, but to the feelings and emotions of the speaker towards these things or to his emotions as such.

And finally we come to nominal meaning. There are words which, while expressing concepts, indicate a particular object out of a class. These words are classified in grammars as proper nouns.