2.2 Using lexical and sematic features of horror novels in the English in Ukrainian language.

English is language which has many word formation processes like compounding, blends, affixation etc. In each word we can make change in the part of speech until meaning so we can enrich our new vocabulary, it is very useful to communicate with each other. Word that is employed of speaker must be related to the rules of that language. For example English, the speaker who uses English has to know about the word formation process so that they can make a new word from it. We must also know about the rule of this process to enrich our vocabulary.

The most common type of compounding in English language is the combination of two (or more) nouns in order to form a resulting noun: Noun + Noun = Noun

Examples: landmine, wallpaper, toothbrush

The first of the two compounds may be descriptive (i.e. tablecloth, a cloth with which to clean [or cloth] tables), or both compounds may create a whole new meaning altogether (i.e railroad, which is not a "road" in the typical sense of the word.) It is also possible to form words whose components are equally important to or descriptive of its meaning, for example, a washer-dryer refers to an object combining two functions.

There are, of course, many more different ways in English language how compound nouns can be related to each other and how their new meanings can best be explained grammatically. In most cases, however, the nature of these compounds is self-explanantory, and their meanings are quite comprehensible even for those who encounter them for the first time.

Note that compound nouns usually appear as two separate words, only those more commonly used, those found in every-day language, and usually compounds with no more than three syllables are found as one word. Hyphens (-) between the segments of a compound noun are absolutely exceptional. Examples:

windowsill (the sill attached under a window), shopwindow (a shop's window), doorkey (a key for the door), bookpage (a page in a book), silverspoon (a spoon made of silver), waterpipe (a pipe that carries water), dockyard (a yard for docks), fireman (somebody who fights fire), wallpaper ("paper" one glues to walls), Independence Day (anniversary of the Declaration of Independence), office supply (goods for office use), water shortage (shortage of water), labour riot (employees rioting Verb+Noun

Here verbs describe what is done with an object or what a subject "does", in short, a new noun is formed, usually referring to something concrete, and the verb defines the action related to it:

Verb + Noun = Noun: draw + bridge = drawbridge.

A drawbridge is a bridge that can be inclined in order to allow ships to pass, or "drawn". Here, the noun is the direct object.

hitman = a man who carries out "dirty jobs", or, who "hits". Here, the word as part of speech is the subject.

Besides that, both segments can be related in other ways, i.e. the noun may stand for a adverb of place: walkway = people walk on the walkway.

Noun+ Adjective

Nouns and adjectives can also be compounded in the opposite order:

Noun + Adjective = Adjective

Camera + shy = camera-shy (Shy in respect of appearing or speaking before cameras).

In this case, the resultant is an adjective, while the noun explaines the objective.

Another possibility is that the noun supports the adjective, i.e. as an intensifier:

dirt-cheap = cheap as dirt; paper-thin = thin as paper

Those rules do also apply to the linking of nouns and participial adjectives:

English-speaking; soul-destroying; frost-bitten

More common and shorter compounds appear as one word whereas those longer and less common are linked by a hyphen. More examples of all subtypes:

waterproof (proof or resistant against water), seaworthy (a ship withstanding the dangers of the sea), airworthy (an aircraft safely flyable), blameworthy (a person deserving blame), book worthy (something worth being published), trustworthy (somebody who can be trusted.

Other Compounds

There are various other types of compounds. A selection of which is shown below.

Adjective+ Adjective : bitter-sweet, deaf-mute, aural-oral, Anglo-Saxon

Adjective + Participle : far-reaching, far fetched, narrow-minded, single-minded, high-climbing, low-yielding, red-painted, bare-handed.

Word compounds are fairly frequent in Ukrainian, but they play a subordinate part in word formation. In substantives, adjectives, adverbs, and verbs, compounds are usually formed by connecting two stems with so-called linking vowels: -o-, -e- (in substantives), and -y- (in cases where the first part is a numeral); eg, syn’-o-zelenyj ‘blue-green’, zeml-e-trus ‘earthquake’, šest-y-kutnyk ‘hexagon’.

Word juxtaposition, in which the first component becomes part of the compound without undergoing any change (if there is an ending, it also becomes part of the compound; eg, žalju-hidnyj ‘pitiful’, kil’ka-poverxovyj ‘several-storied’), is not very productive in the inflectional parts of speech, except in the derivation of compound numerals (eg, dvisti sorok p'jat’ ‘245', dvisti sorok p'jat’ox ‘245' gen), but it is normal in the derivation of prepositions (eg, ponad ‘above’, z-pid ‘from under’), particles (xiba ž bo ‘unless’), and interjections (tap-talap ‘plop’). The derivation of substantives, especially of the names of states, institutions, organizations, and positions, allows for several types of abbreviation.

In the Ukrainian language compounding is a common type of word formation, and several types of compounds exist, both in terms of compounded parts of speech and of the way of the formation of a compound.

Compound nouns may be agglutinative compounds, hyphenated compounds (стіл-книга 'folded table' lit. 'table-book', i.e., "book-like table"), or abbreviated compounds (portmanteaux: колхоз). Some compounds look like portmanteaux, while in fact they are an agglutinations of type stem + word: "Академістечко" (from "akademichesky gorodok" 'Academic Townlet', i.e., Academic Village). In agglutinative compound nouns, an agglutinating infix is typically used: пароплав 'steamship': пар + о + плав. Compound nouns may be created as noun+noun, adjective+noun, noun+adjective (rare), noun+verb (or, rather, noun+verbal noun).

Compound adjectives may be formed either per se, e.g., "біло-рожевий" 'white-pink' or as a result of compounding.

In this table shows predominate adjectives which characterize human temper. In the English language majority of words have several meanings which shows that the Ukrainian language is richer in equivalents at the same time.

The main aim of this course paper was to make contrastive analysis of English and Ukrainian compound adjectives, to reveal differences and similarities, proper ways of translating these adjectives from one language into another. Appropriate equivalence of compound adjectives and their forms is very important to communicate the needed ideas and actions in mind properly.

This research has shown that in Ukrainian variety of compound adjectives is smaller and adjectives that are compound in the English language in Ukrainian are formed with the help of prefixes, suffixes or merely are word combinations.

In both English and Ukrainian according to valency analysis adjective-forming suffixes can be added to noun, verbal, adjective stems and only in Ukrainian to adverbial stems. The total number of suffixes in English is bigger than in Ukrainian. That point out that Ukrainian adjective-forming suffixes bear more than one lexical meaning.

I think this points out that despite the fact that languages are different (analytical and synthetically) the amount of suffixes in each group is approximately equal, but in Ukrainian language bigger part of adjectives is built with their help, what I can’t say about English language.

In the Ukrainian language a number of compound adjectives is smaller than in English.

In English new meanings of compound adjectives are created by adding prepositions (e.g. over-ripe ,underage) which in the Ukrainian language have stable meanings without adding preposition, so the conclusion of this is that in English language there are more ways of creating new words, with new or similar meanings.

Hyphens in compound adjectives occur more frequently in English language especially in adjectives that are formed with past participle and present participle. In the Ukrainian language they occur mostly with words which signify colors (e.g.blue-green-голубо-зелений).

The semantic structure of the word ‘man’ in English and Ukrainian languagesMeaning – the reverberation in the human consciousness of an object, a quality of extralinguistic reality (a phenomenon, a relation, a quality, a process), which becomes a fact of language because of its constant indissoluble association with the definite linguistic expression. Meaning conveyed by a speaker is the speaker’s communicative intent in using an expression, even if that use departs from the expression’s meaning. Accordingly, any discussion of meaning should distinguish speaker’s meaning for linguistic meaning. There exist a number of definitions of meaning:a reciprocal relation between name and sense, which enables them to call up one another (St. Ullmann); function in a context. Meaning, then, we use the whole complex of functions which a linguistic form may have (J.R.Firth);a function of the descriptions at all levels (M.A.K.Halliday) and many others. According to Vinogradov, meaning of a word can be:Nominative.Nominative-derivative. Collegationally and collocationally conditioned. Phraseologically bound. Nominative is the basic meaning of a word, which refers to object of extra linguistic reality in a direct way and reflects their actual relations. Nominative-derivative meaning comes into being when the word is “stretched out” semantically to cover new facts and extra linguistic phenomena. When the speaker uses the word metaphorically he extends its content. The metaphorical use is based on certain similarities observed by the speaker. Different meaning – the identity of the word remains intact, because the difference in meaning is not great enough to split the word into 2 different units.

When the speaker observes similarities between the objects, the semantic content of the word is made elastic to be stretched out and cover new bits of reality. Such metaphorical meanings are poetically present in the semantic structure of the word. If nominative meaning is a direct meaning, nominative-derivative meaning is a transferred meaning.

Collegationally and collocationally conditioned meanings are not free, but bound. Collegationally conditioned meaning is determined by morphosyntactic combinability of words. Some meanings are realized only without a given morphosyntactic pattern (colligation).to tell – сказати, розказатиIn passive constructions means to order/to direct: You must do what you’re told.to carry – нестиIn passive construction – to accept: The amendment to the bill was carried.