Maghreb arab union

The UMA was founded in terms of the 1993 Treaty of Marrakesh as a regional organisation for stability, security and economic coordination. Membership consists of Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia; and the Secretariat is in Rabat.

North american free trade agreement

NAFTA, signed in 1992 by Canada, Mexico and the United States of America, seeks to establish a Free Trade Area by the phased removal of tariffs and quotas on industrial and agricultural goods in the area within ten years (for agriculture and motor vehicles, fifteen years), and by freedom to establish services. The objectives of the Agreement are set out more specifically in the Preamble which states that the contracting parties are resolved to

strengthen the special bonds of friendship and cooperation among their nations; contribute to the harmonious development and expansion of world trade and provide a catalyst to broader international cooperation; create an expanded and secure market for the goods and services produced in their territories; reduce distortions of trade; establish clear and mutually advantageous rules governing their trade; ensure a predictable commercial framework for business planning and investment; build on their respective rights and obligations under the World Trade Organisation and other multilateral and bilateral instruments of cooperation; enhance the competitiveness of their firms in global markets; foster creativity and innovation, and promote trade in goods and services that are the subject of intellectual property rights; create new employment opportunities and improve working conditions and living conditions and living standards in their respective territories; undertake each of these objectives in a manner consistent with environmental protection and conservation; preserve their flexibility to safeguard the public welfare; promote sustainable development; strengthen the development and enforcement of environmental laws and regulations, and protect, enhance and enforce basic workers' rights.

Special provisions apply in respect of the 1973 Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that deplete the Ozone Layer; the 1989 Basel Convention and the 1986 US, Canada, Mexico Agreement on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal; and the 1983 US, Mexico, Agreement on Cooperation for the Protection and Improvement of the Environment in the Border Area.

In January 1996 Chile became associated with NAFTA as a prelude to the projected 'Free Trade Area of the Americas from Alaska to Tierra del Fuego'.

North atlantic treaty organisation

NATO was founded in 1949, and together with CENTO (Central Treaty Organisation) and SEATO (South-East Asia Treaty Organisation) provided the military means of containing the expansionist policies of the then Soviet Union. The essence of the North Atlantic Treaty is that an armed attack against one or more of the signatories is considered as an attack against them all (Article 5). Members of the Alliance are Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States of America. In 1997 negotiations opened with the Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland with a view to their accession to the North Atlantic Treaty (subject to the necessary ratifications) in 1999, when NATO will review the enlargement process and consider applications for membership from other European emerging democracies whose admission would fulfil the objectives of the Treaty, special mention being made of Romania and Slovenia.

The area of application of the treaty extends to the territory of any of the parties in Europe and North America; an attack on the forces of any party in Europe, on the islands under jurisdiction of any party in the North Atlantic area north of the Tropic of Cancer, or on the vessels or aircraft of any parties in this area. Out-of-area operations for the purpose of conflict prevention, peace enforcement and peace-keeping have subsequently evolved without prejudicing the terms of Article 5. The prime concern of NATO, acting in a defensive capacity, continues to be to safeguard the security, sovereignty and territorial integrity of its members, maintaining security at the lowest possible level of forces consistent with the requirements of defence. In a more positive role it seeks, through dialogue, partnership and cooperation, a new and more peaceful order, based on the conviction that stability and security in the Euro-Atlantic area will increasingly be built on a framework of interlocking and mutually reinforcing institutions.

In 1991, in response to the changed political and military situation in Europe, the member countries of NATO, together with the former members of the Warsaw Pact, agreed to create the North Atlantic Cooperation Council (NACC). This initiative was followed in 1994 by a system of Partnership for Peace (PfP) whereby member countries of NACC and OSCE (see p. 114) were invited to take part in dialogue and mutually confidence-building measures, with a view to ensuring transparency in national defence planning and expenditure; democratic control of defence forces; the maintenance of the capability and readiness (subject to constitutional constraints) to contribute to operations under the authority of the UN or the OSCE; the development of cooperative military relations with NATO; and the development, over the longer term, of armed forces that are better able to operate with those of NATO member countries. Members of PfP are Albania, Austria, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Finland, Georgia, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia (FYR), Moldova, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Switzerland, Sweden, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan.

In 1997 the NACC was succeeded by the Euro-Atlantic Cooperation Council (EACC), which provides a multilateral framework for the enhanced efforts within PfP concerning an expanded political dimension of partnership and practical cooperation. It complements the respective activities of the OSCE and other relevant institutions such as the European Union, the Western European Union and the Council of Europe, and as the successor to NACC, it provides the overarching framework for consultations among its members on a broad range of political and security-related issues, as part of a process that will develop through practice. PfP in its enhanced form will be a clearly identifiable element within this flexible framework. The enhanced political dimension of consultation and co-operation which the EAPC offers will allow Partners, if they wish, to develop a direct political relationship individually or in smaller groups with the Alliance. The Council is inclusive, in that opportunities for political consultation and practical co-operation are open to all Allies and Partners equally. It also maintains self-differentiation, in that Partners are able to decide for themselves the level and areas of co-operation with NATO, for example in political and security related matters; crisis management; regional matters; arms control issues; nuclear, biological and chemical (NBC) proliferation and defence issues; countering international terrorism; defence planning and budgets and defence policy and strategy, and security impacts of economic developments. There will also be scope for consultations and cooperation on issues such as civil emergency and disaster preparedness; armaments cooperation under the aegis of the Conference of National Armaments Directors (CNAD); nuclear safety; defence related environmental issues; civil-military co-ordination of air traffic management and control; scientific co-operation, and issues related to peace support operations.

In parallel with NATO’s enlarged membership and its increasing role as a major factor in the process of creating a 'European' identity, the NATO-Russia Permanent Joint Council was established in 1997 in order to provide a forum for consultation and cooperation between the two partners on matters of mutual concern including conflict prevention, peace-keeping and security policies. The 'Founding Act on Mutual Relations, Cooperation and Security between NATO and the Russian Federation' expressed inter alia, the resolve to reinforce the role of the OSCE as the major Pan-European organisation, and reiterated the commitment in the Helsinki Final Act to respect the sovereignty, independence, and territorial integrity of states, and to settle disputes peacefully. A special Charter with Ukraine was also established in 1997, and a Mediterranean Dialogue on a regular basis was agreed.

NATO's involvement in conflict limitation in the former Yugoslavia and - following the conclusion of the Dayton Agreement in 1995 - peace keeping (IFOR/SFOR), exemplified its new role in crisis management and in reinforcing stability and security in Europe, and at the same time it emphasised the evolution in the degree of responsibility for such European operations as between America and Canada on the one hand and the Western European Union on the other. The WEU is defined in the Maastricht Treaty as 'the future defence arm of the European Union alongside NATO and the OSCE' and has the task of elaborating and implementing decisions and actions of the Union which have defence implications; but a major limitation to its capabilities has been its inability to provide the necessary transport, intelligence and high technology equipment to act alone. However, this problem was addressed in Brussels in 1994 when NATO agreed: 'to make the collective assets of the Alliance available, on the basis of consultations in the North Atlantic Council, for Western European Union operations undertaken by the European Allies in pursuit of their common Foreign and Security Policy'.

The basic organisational structure of NATO consists of the Secretary-General, and the North Atlantic Council on which all member countries are represented by a Permanent Representative with the rank of Ambassador. The five substantive Divisions, which in many ways reveal the scope and purpose of the organisation, are: Political Affairs, Defence Planning and operations, Defence Support, Infrastructure Logistics and Civil Emergency Planning, and Scientific and Environmental Affairs. Independent of the organisational structure is the North Atlantic Assembly of national parliamentarians which debates and considers NATO issues.

The NATO Military Structure is headed by the Military Committee on which all member states (with the exception of France and Spain which have 'Observer' status) are represented. It is the primary source of military advice to the Secretary General and is responsible to the North Atlantic Council Defence Planning Committee and Nuclear Planning Group for the overall conduct of the military affairs of the Alliance. The Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR) is based at Casteau, Belgium; the Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic (SACLANT) is based in Norfolk, U.S.A., and the Canada-U.S. Regional Planning Group (CUSRPG) is based in Arlington U.S.A. The Director of the International Military Staff is responsible for ensuring that the policies and decisions of the Military Committee are implemented and heads six Divisions: Intelligence, Plans and Policy, Operations, Logistics, Armaments and Resources, Communications and Information Systems, and Cooperation and Regional Security. The NATO Headquarters and Secretariat, which also houses the Diplomatic representatives from the Alliance's Co-operation Partners, is in Brussels, and the NATO Defence College is in Rome.

ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC

COOPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT

The OECD was established as a successor to the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) and came into being on 30 September 1961. Its objectives are to promote economic and social welfare throughout the OECD area by assisting its member governments in the formulation of policies designed to this end, and by coordinating these policies; and to stimulate and harmonise its members' aid efforts in favour of developing countries. The supreme body of the organisation is the Council, composed of one representative from each member country. It meets at permanent representative level (normally ambassadorial) approximately once a week under the chairmanship of the Secretary-General, and at ministerial level usually once a year under the chairmanship of a Minister elected annually. Decisions and Recommendations are adopted by mutual agreement of all members of the Council. The Council is assisted by an Executive Committee composed of fourteen of its members designated annually.

The major part of the Organisation's work is prepared and carried out in specialised committees and working parties of which there are about 200. These include Committees for economic policy; economic and development review; development assistance (DAC); trade; invisible transactions; financial markets; fiscal affairs; restrictive business practices; consumer policy; tourism, maritime transport; international investment and multinational enterprises; energy policy; industry; steel; scientific and technological policy; education; manpower and social affairs; environment; agriculture; fisheries, etc. Four autonomous or semi-autonomous bodies also belong to the Organisation: the International Energy Agency (IEA); the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA); the Development Centre; and the Centre for Educational Research and Innovation. In 1990 the Centre for Cooperation with the European Economics in Transition (CCEET) was established to act as the point of contact between the OECD and Central and Eastern European countries seeking guidance in moving towards a market economy.

Members of the OECD are Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zea

land, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America. The Commission of the European Communities generally takes part in the work of the OECD. The Secretariat, headed by the Secretary-General, is in Paris.

ORGANISATION FOR SECURITY AND

COOPERATION IN EUROPE

The OSCE (until 1994 the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe) has its roots in the Cold War confidence-building process based on the 1975 Helsinki Final Act, and developed its present form following the Charter of Paris for a New Europe in 1990, the Helsinki Summit of 1992 and the Budapest Summit of 1994. The current objectives of OSCE include conflict anticipation and prevention; arms control; human rights; the establishment of a Code of Conduct relating to military transparency and the role of the armed forces in democratic societies; and crisis management, in which connection it supervised the 1996 elections in Bosnia and Herzegovina in furtherance of the Dayton Accord.

The institutions of the OSCE are the OSCE Summit of Heads of State or Government which meets every two years; the Foreign Ministers Council which meets annually; the Senior Council of Political Directors which meets in Prague, and the Permanent Council of Delegates which meets in Vienna weekly. The OSCE Parliament Assembly meets annually and its Secretariat is in Copenhagen. The Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights, which is situated in Warsaw, is concerned specifically with human rights and the process of national elections; the office of the High Commissioner on National Minorities is in The Hague, and the Court of Conciliation and Arbitration is in Geneva. The Forum for Security Cooperation meets weekly in Vienna.

The factor which gives the OSCE especial significance is the composition of its membership, including as it does all the participants of the Cold War; and since it operates on the basis of unanimity it is the only regional organisation which provides a forum for creating a New European Order continent-wide with the participation of the USA. The significance of this special relationship between the former 'East' and 'West' was underlined in the 1997 Founding Act on Mutual Relations, Cooperation and Security between NATO and Russia which in the preamble defines the role of the OSCE as 'the inclusive and comprehensive organisation for consultation, decision-making and cooperation in its area' and as a Regional Arrangement under Chapter VIII of the UN Charter which makes provision for 'regional arrangements or agencies... dealing with... matters relating to the maintenance of international peace and security as are appropriate for regional action'. The two signatories agreed to 'help strengthen the OSCE in Europe', including developing further its role as a primary instrument in preventive diplomacy, conflict prevention, crisis management, post-conflict rehabilitation and regional security cooperation, as well as in enhancing its operational capabilities to carry out these tasks.

Membership of the OSCE is Albania, Andorra, Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Holy See, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia (FYR), Malta, Moldova, Monaco, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Son Marino, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, United Kingdom, United States of America, Uzbekistan and Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro, suspended). Partners for Cooperation are Japan and Korea; Mediterranean Partners are Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Morocco and Tunisia; and the Secretariat is in Vienna.