I took possession of his effects after his death, I explained. They were done up in a parcel and I was directed to give them to you.

«Все, що лишилось від нього після смерті, віддали мені», - пояснив я. «Листи та портсигар були загорнуті в пакет. На ньому було написано: передати особисто леді Калстеллан».

c) sentence elements

This is something referred to as syntactic restructuring of the sentence in the process of translation. It consists of changing the sentence functions of words in a sentence, a process which is preserving the functional sentence perspective. In English, as in Ukrainian the “theme” is generally (with some exceptions) placed at the beginning of the sentence; however, this place is, of course, reserved for the sentence subject, the result being that the "theme" of the English sentence is, as a rule, also its subject, though semantically it is not always the doer of the action expressed by the predicate verbs: it may be its object (goal) or even may denote some adverbial relation (time, place, cause, etc.). In Ukrainian the word order is relatively free, therefore, the first word or word group within a sentence (its theme) must not necessarily be at the same time its syntactic subject.

He was met by his sister.

Його зустріла сестра.

The last week saw an intensification of diplomatic activity.

Минулого тижня спостерігалась активізація дипломатичної діяльності.

The crash killed 20 people.

В результаті катастрофи загинуло 20 людей.

d) sentence types

A very common transformation in the process of translation is the replacement of a simple sentence by a complex one and vice versa. Thus, while translating from English into Ukrainian it often becomes necessary to render English structures with nonfinite verbal forms by means of subordinate clauses, thus turning a simple sentence into complex, as, for instance:

I want you to speak English.

Я хочу, щоб ви говорили на англійській мові.

I heard my mother go out and close the door.

Я чула, як мама вийшла з кімнати і зачинила двері.

e) types of syntactic relations

From the purely grammatical point of view this transformation is optional; however, taking into consideration what was said concerning the relative frequency of grammatical forms.

Such transformations are necessary if we want to make our translation sound natural, that is, if we want to avoid undesirable heaviness.

All I have in it is two dresses and my moccasins and my underwear and socks and some other things.

Все, що я маю це дві сукні, мокасини, білизну, шкарпетки та інші дрібнички.

In the original, the conjunction "and" is used four times while in the Ukrainian translation it appears only once, before the last constituent, the rest being joined asyndetically.

The third type of transformation is ADDITION.

The tendency towards compression both in the grammatical and the lexical systems of the English language often makes additions necessary and indispensable. It should be stressed once more that additions accompany transpositions and replacements. Sometimes additions are required by pragmatic considerations, e.g.:

Pay claim – вимога підвищення заробітної плати, Welfare cuts – урізання бюджетних асигнувань на соціальні потреби; Gun license – дозвіл на володіння вогнепальною зброєю.

Attributive groups are another case in point. The elements forming such groups vary in number, their translation into Ukrainian as a rule requires additions, e.g.:

Jobs-for-youth Club – клуб, що ставить за мету забезпечити молодь роботою.

The decoding of an attributive group, however, does not always involve additions, but merely transpositions and replacements, e.g.:

A million pound forged bank draft fraud.

Афера з підробленим векселем на мільйон фунтів стерлінгів.

The forth type is OMISSION. Omission acts in the opposite direction to addition and is used to ensure a greater degree of what is called “compression”, that is reducing the redundancy of the text by omitting words which can be easily restored from the context, e.g.:

For the fishermen of Rebun, the notion that young outsiders may choose to adopt their way of life is both fascinating and perplexing.

Рибалкам острову Ребун здається дивним і незвичайним, що приїжджа молодь може віддати перевагу їх способу життя.

Two omissions have been made here. The meaning of the word “notion” is implied in the predicate of the Ukrainian sentence and this word can safely be left out. The verb “to choose” and “to adopt” may be regarded as synonymous and the meaning of these two verbs is fully covered by the Ukrainian “віддати перевагу” which implies choice.

The next point in our plan is translation of different grammatical phenomena.

One of the grammar challenges in translating from English, and especially into English, is the article, since this category doesn’t exist in the Ukrainian language.

The categories of definiteness and indefiniteness are universal but the ways and means of expressing these notions vary in different languages.

In English this function is fulfilled by the articles whereas in Ukrainian – by word order. Both the definite and indefinite articles in English are meaningful and their meanings and their functions cannot be ignored in translation.

In translation of articles we may use a transposition. Every utterance falls into two parts – the theme and rheme. We have already discussed it. Thus, the theme is the starting point of the utterance and as such it can sometimes introduce a new subject about which the rheme gives some information. In this case the indefinite article is used to indicate indefiniteness. The theme usually occupies the initial position in the sentence. The theme in the English language with its fixed word order usually coincides with the grammatical subject of the sentence. When the theme again occurs in the text it is preceded by the definite article.

A lady entered the compartment. The lady sat down in the corner seat.

У купе увійшла пані. Пані сіла в кутку біля вікна. (P.G.Wodehouse).

The categories of indefiniteness and definiteness are expressed by the indefinite and the definite articles respectively and these categories are rendered by word order in translation.

When the articles are charged with some other meanings apart from the categories of definiteness and indefiniteness lexical means come into play in translation.

If these meanings are not rendered lexically, the Ukrainian sentence is semantically incomplete. The article in the numeric function retains its historical meaning of “one”:

I’ll be back in a minute.

Я повернусь через (одну) хвилину.

It is a replacement of the part of speech. Thus, lexical compensators of the classifying article might be as follows: один з, якийсь, дехто, один, такий. This variant of transformation concerns indefinite article.

Practically, definite articles are translated with the same type of transformation, that is, replacement. The definite article specifies the definite object, either known to the speaker and listener or inferred from the situation. In this case it is often compensated by a Ukrainian pronoun цей, той, той самий, e.g.:

Here is the man we are looking for.

Ось цей чоловік, якого ми шукаємо.

However, we may use a replacement (substitution) of articles. Definite articles help to designate a class as a whole. As such it is often translated by substituting the noun in the singular with that in the plural, e.g.:

The olive grows only in warm climates.

Оливки ростуть тільки в теплому кліматі.

The next grammatical category that we should discuss is system of tenses. It is translated mainly by replacement. English Simple (Indefinite) tenses denoting regular, permanent actions correspond to the Ukrainian imperfective aspect, e.g.:

Water boils at 100º Centigrade.

Вода кипить при 100ºC.

When expressing an action as a single fact, a Simple tense corresponds to the Ukrainian perfective form:

When I heard the news, I walked faster and faster.

Коли я почула цю новину, я пішла швидшим кроком.

Progressive tenses, denoting temporary continuous actions, correspond to the Ukrainian imperfective form:

He first became interested in drama when he was working abroad.

Він вперше зацікавився драматургією, коли працював за кордомном.

English Perfect forms, when expressing a completed action, correspond to Ukrainian perfective verbs: