Text 10. The Properties of Diamonds

Active Vocabulary:

rough	грубий	solid	тверде тіло
to process	обробляти	orthoclase	ортоклас (мінерал)
gem	коштовний камінь	file	напилок
to purchase	купувати	to link	з’єднувати
hard	твердий	lattice	решітка
to rank	займати місце	to share	ділитися

Diamonds are found as rough stones and must be processed to create a sparkling gem that is ready for purchase.

Diamonds are the crystallized form of carbon created under extreme heat and pressure. It’s this same process that makes diamonds the hardest mineral we know of. A diamond ranks a 10 on the Mohs Hardness Scale. The Mohs Scale is used to determine the hardness of solids, especially minerals. It is named after the German mineralogist Friedrich Mohs. Here’s the scale, from softest to hardest:

talc – easily scratched by the fingernail;

gypsum – just scratched by the fingernail;

calcite – scratches and is scratched by a copper coin;

fluorite – not scratched by a copper coin and does not scratch glass;

apatite – just scratches glass and is easily scratched by a knife;

orthoclase – easily scratches glass and is just scratched by a file;

quartz – (amethyst, citrine, tiger’s-eye, aventurine) not scratched by a file;

topaz – scratched only by corundum and diamond;

corundum – (sapphires and rubies) scratched only by a diamond;

diamond – scratched only by another diamond.

Even though diamond is only one level higher on the scale than corundum, diamond can be anywhere from 10 to hundreds of times harder than this class of gems.

It is the molecular structure of diamonds that makes them so hard. Diamonds are made of carbon atoms linked together in a lattice structure. Each carbon atom shares electrons with four other carbon atoms, forming a tetrahedral unit. This tetrahedral bonding of five carbon atoms forms an incredibly strong molecule. Graphite, another form of carbon, isn’t as strong as diamond because the carbon atoms in graphite link together in rings, where each atom is only linked to one other atom.

Speech patterns

It is him who	invented this machine.	Саме він винайшов цю машину.
It is the helmet that	saved my life.	Саме шолом врятував мені життя.
It is tomorrow that	I make a report.	Саме завтра я роблю доповідь.

І. Decide which of these statements are true and which are false.

1. Diamonds are a form of sodium. 2. Diamond is the hardest mineral we know. 3. Friedrich Mohs was an Italian Physicist. 4. Quartz is harder than gypsum. 5. In diamonds, carbon atoms make a hexahedron unit.

ІІ. Answer the following questions.

1. What physical phenomena influence the creation of diamonds? 2. What property is the criterion for ordering minerals in the Mohs Scale? 3. How many minerals are there in the Mohs Scale? 4. What makes diamond molecules so strong?

Text 11. Are Cell-phones Harmful?

Active Vocabulary:

cell phone	стільниковий телефон	frequency	частота
proximity	близькість	available	наявний
to cause	викликати	adverse	шкідливий
exposure	піддавання	to dissipate	розсіювати
tissue	тканина	vulnerable	уразливий
to alter	змінювати	ailment	нездужання
lead	свинець	fatigue	втома

All cell phones emit some amount of electromagnetic radiation. Given the close proximity of the phone to the head, it is possible for the radiation to cause some sort of harm to the 118 million cell-phone users in the United States. What is being debated in the scientific and political arenas is just how much radiation is considered unsafe, and if there are any potential long-term effects of cell-phone radiation exposure.

There are two types of electromagnetic radiation:

• Ionizing radiation. This type of radiation contains enough electro-magnetic energy to strip atoms and molecules from the tissue and alter chemical reactions in the body. Gamma rays and X-rays are two forms of ionizing radiation. We know they cause damage, which is why we wear a lead vest when X-rays are taken of our bodies.

• Non-ionizing radiation. Non-ionizing radiation is typically safe. It causes some heating effect, but usually not enough to cause any type of long-term damage to tissue. Radio-frequency energy, visible light and microwave radiation are considered non-ionizing.

On its Web site, the FDA states that “the available scientific evidence does not demonstrate any adverse health effects associated with the use of mobile phones.” However, that doesn’t mean that the potential for harm doesn’t exist. Radiation can damage human tissue if it is exposed to high levels of RF radiation, according to the FCC. RF radiation has the ability to heat human tissue, much like the way microwave ovens heat food. Damage to tissue can be caused by exposure to RF radiation because the body is not equipped to dissipate excessive amounts of heat. The eyes are particularly vulnerable due to the lack of blood flow in that area.

The added concern with non-ionizing radiation, the type of radiation associated with cell phones, is that it could have long-term effects. Although it may not immediately cause damage to tissue, scientists are still unsure about whether prolonged exposure could create problems. This is an especially sensitive issue today, because more people are using cell phones than ever before. In 1994, there were 16 million cell-phone users in the United States alone. As of July 17, 2001, there were more than 118 million.

Here are a few illnesses and ailments that have potential links to cell-phone radiation: cancer, brain tumors, Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, fatigue, headaches.

If you are worried about the potential hazards of cell-phone radiation, here are a few ways to reduce your risk:

• Use a hands-free headset.

• Use a phone that places the antenna as far away from you as possible.

• Extend the antenna during use.

• Limit calls inside buildings.

• Limit use by children.

Speech Patterns

It is important	for him	to know these laws	Йому важливо знати ці закони.
It is necessary		to revise this rule .	Йому необхідно повторити це правило.
It is essential		to be in time for the exam.	Головне, щоб він не запізнився на екзамен.

І. Decide which of these statements are true and which are false.

1. Cell phones emit big amount of electromagnetic radiation. 2. Radio-frequency radiation has the ability to destroy human tissue. 3. Scientists still discuss the possible harm of cell phones effect. 4. Children may use cell phones without any restriction.

ІІ. Answer the following questions.

1. How many cell phone users were there in the USA in 2001? 2. What illnesses may be caused by excessive use of cell phones? 3. What are the forms of ionizing radiation? 4. What organ is particularly vulnerable to the effect of heat?

Text 12. The Internet

Active Vocabulary:

global	всесвітній	feeds	забезпечення
interconnected	з`єднаний	to enable	робити можливим
network	мережа	instant	миттєвий
mail	пошта	message	повідомлення
to reshape	надавати нової форми	forum	засідання, конференція
Web site	вузол мережі	access	доступ
blog	щоденник у мережі	data	дані
software	програмне забезпечення	hardware	деталі комп`ютера

The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks linked by a broad range of electronic and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries a lot of information resources and services, especially the inter-linked hypertext documents of the World Wide Web (WWW) and the infrastructure to support electronic mail.

Most traditional communications media, such as telephone and television services, are reshaped using the technologies of the Internet, giving rise to services such as Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) and IPTV. Newspaper publishing has been reshaped into Web sites, blogging, and web feeds. The Internet has enabled the creation of new forms of human communications through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking sites.

The Internet was created in the 1960s when the USA funded research projects of its military agencies decided to build forceful computer networks. Now the Internet has no centralized governance in either technological realization or policies for access and usage.

The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used in everyday speech without much difference. However, the Internet and the World Wide Web are not one and the same. The Internet is a global data communications system. It is a hardware and software infrastructure that provides connectivity between computers. In contrast, the Web is one of the services communicated via the Internet. It is a collection of interconnected documents and other resources, linked by hyperlinks and URLs.

Speech Patterns

either ... or	або ... або	You may choose to study either English or French. Ви можете вибрати, що вивчати – або англійську, або французьку.
neither ... nor	ні ... ні	Neither wind nor low temperature could stop the travellers. Ані вітер, ані низька температура не могли зупинити мандрівників.

І. Decide which of these statements are true and which are false.

1. The Internet is a global system of computer networks connected by a wide range of electronic and optical networking technologies. 2. TV programs have been transformed into Web sites, blogging, and web feeds. 3. The Internet was created as forceful computer networks in the 1960s in the USA for military purposes. 4. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are one and the same.

ІІ. Answer the following questions.

1. What is the Internet? 2. What traditional communication media give rise to services such as Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) and IPTV? 3. What new forms of human communications were created in the Internet? 4. When was the Internet created?