27. The Semantic str-re. The theoru of semantic cases.

Traditionally sentence analysis starts from syntactic structure. It is possible, however, to start with the semantic representation and then relate constituents of the semantic (underlying, deep) structure to the constituents of the grammatical (surface) structure.Models of the analysis of semantic structure were worked out by the representatives of a new school of linguistic thought, called generative semantics. One of these models is Case Grammar devised by the American scholar Ch.Fillmore. TM distinguished deep and surface structures within the syntactic level. In Case Grammar deep, or underlying structure is semantic and surface structure is syntactic. Deep, or semantic structure has two main constituents: modality (features of mood, tense, aspect, negation, relating to the sentence as a whole) and proposition (a tenseless set of relationships): "S—M + Pr". The proposition is constituted by the semantic predicate (the central element) and some nominal elements, called arguments or participants: "P—-V-+-N1+N2+N3 ...". The proposition is a reflection of situations and events of the outside world. The semantic predicate determines the number of arguments, or opens up places for arguments. Accordingly we may distinguish one-place predicates (She sang), two-place predicates (She broke the dish). Arguments are in different semantic relations to the predicate. These relations are called semantic roles or deep cases (P+V+C1+C2+C3 ...). The choice of semantic roles depends on the nature of the predicate. The most general roles are agent (doer of the action) and patient (affected by the action or state). Actions are accompanied by agents, states and processes — by patients; predicates, denoting both actions and processes — by agents and patients: She broke the dish. The original set of deep cases, proposed by Ch.Fillmore, includes 6 cases: agentive, objective, beneficiary, instrument, locative, factitive. Eg.:(1) He dug the ground. (Objective) (2) He dug a hole. (Factitive) Sentences (1) and (2) have the same surface structure, but different deep structure. On the other hand different syntactic structures may refer to the same deep structure: (1) John opened the door with the, key, (2) The door was opeied by John. (3)

John used the key to open the door.(4) The key opened the door.

28. The Logico-communicative str-re. The fsp.

Linguistic analysis of utterances in terms of the information they contain is called the actual division or the analysis of the Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP). FSP was thoroughly analysed by the representatives of the Prague School of functional linguistics.FSP refers to the way the speaker structures the information, the way he identifies the relative importance of utterance parts. Usually the utterance consists of two parts: the topic of discussion: something about which a statement is made and the new information, which adds most to the process of communication. These two sections are called the theme and the rheme, or topic and comment. Some sentences contain only the rheme, they are monorhematic: It is getting dark. In the majority of sentences the constituentsare either rhematic or thematic. There are also transitional elements. Sentences containing the theme and the rheme are called dirhematic. A sentence acquires FSP in the context, but it also has it, taken separately, as it reflects certain contextual relations.In Modern Russian the rheme is usually placed at the end and the main means of expressing FSP is word-order. As the main function of word-order in English is grammatical, English has other ways of expressing FSP. Thematic elements are indicated by the definite article, loose parenthesis (as for me...), detached parts of the sentence; rhematic elements — by the indefinite article, particles (even, only), negations, emphatic constructions (The, who...). But in the majority of sentences the rheme is also placed at the end, which is achieved by changing the syntactic structure of the sentence. Some means of making the subject rhematic: the constructions there is/there are., it is necessary, inversion, etc.Thematic elements contribute little to the meaning of the utterance as they reflect what has already been communicated, in other words they have the lowest degree of communicative dynamism (CD). Rhematic elements, containing new information which advances the communicative process have the highest degree of CD.