- •Introduction into biochemistry
- •General properties
- •Classification of proteins
- •Simple Proteins – representatives, properties and role
- •Globulins [g]
- •Histones (h) h are basic non value proteins. Localized in nucleus with mol. Mass (mm) 10000-20000 d. They contain of 30% diaminomonocarboxylic acids and have positive charge. Their iep is equal 10.
- •Table 1 “The properties of globular simple proteins”
- •Conjugated proteins
- •Table 2 Composition of the free (transport) lipoproteins in plasma of human
- •True gp Proteoglycans
- •Table 3 Chemical nature of glycosaminoglycans
- •Nucleoproteins (np)
- •Mononucleotides
- •Table 4 The composition and names of nucleosides, nucleotides and their phosphoric derivatives
- •Structure of dna Primary st. Of dna is a spirally one polynucleotides chain (pnc), the disposition of nucleotides in which determine all hereditary properties of organism.
- •Structure of rna
- •Enzymes
- •Mechanism of enzyme action
- •Factors influencing on enzyme activity
- •Enzyme inhibition
- •Classification of enzymes
- •III. Hydrolases
- •Bioenergetics
- •Table 6 Redox potential (rp)
- •Inhibition of oxidative phosphorylation.
- •The types of oxidation
- •Peroxidase’s type
- •Vitamins
- •Vitamin b12
- •Ascorbic acid (vitamin c)
- •Rutin, vitamin p (permeability) – bioflavonoids, capillaris’s strengthening
- •Fat soluble vitamins
- •Deficiency diseases
- •Vitamin k
- •Carbohydrates metabolism. Digestion and absorption of carbohydrates. Intermediate metabolism of carbohydrates
- •Carbohydrates metabolism. Intermediate and final stages of carbohydrates metabolism
- •Lipids of food, their importance, digestion, absorption. Micelles and chylomicrons. The role of intestinal wall, liver, lungs and adipose tissue in lipid metabolism
- •Lipids metabolism. Lipoproteins, their composition and role. The pathways of usage of glycerol and free fatty acids in cells
- •“Pathologic chemistry of lipid’s metabolism”
- •The intermediate Metabolism of Simple Proteins (part 1): the conversion of amino acids in tissues. The formation and usage of Creatine. The decarboxylation of amino acids, the role of biogenic amines
- •Simple proteins metabolism. The pathways of formation and detoxification of ammonia
- •Conjugated proteins metabolism
- •Biochemistry of liver
- •Classification of hormones
- •General properties of hormones
- •Hormones of epiphysis Melatonin
- •Hypothalamic hormones
- •Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone)
- •Oxytocin
- •Hormones of hypophysis
- •Hormones of pancreas
- •Hormones of adrenal glands
- •Sexual hormones are formed in gonads.
- •Estrogens
- •If the pregnancy beginns so development of embryo occurs; if the pregnancy doesn’t occur so degeneration of yellow body proceeds and mensis beginns again Androgens
- •Biochemistry of blood plasma
- •Table 10 a main biochemical indices in the blood plasma (serum)
- •Functions and diagnostic importance of some fractions of proteins Table 11 Biologic and clinic importance of blood serum proteins
- •Blood clotting system
- •Blood dissolution system
- •Complement system
- •Inorganic constituents of blood plasma. Water-mineral metabolism. Acidosis and alkalosis
- •Acidosis and alkalosis Table 12 Acidosis and alkalosis
- •Water metabolism
- •Biochemistry of erythrocytes
- •Metabolism in erythrocytes
- •The physiological and pathological derivatives of hemoglobin and their spectra of taking up
- •Biochemistry of white blood cells
- •Biochemistry of kidneys
- •Normal and pathologic constituents of urine. Urine analysis – its clinical significance Composition of normal urine
- •Physical examination
- •I. Volume
- •The term polyuria implies an increased volume of urine
- •II. Colour
- •III. Specific Gravity
- •Clinical significance
- •IV. Acidity and pH
- •Clinical Significance
- •V. Odor
- •Causes of abnormal odor
- •VI. Turbidity
- •Types of turbidities
- •Inorganic constituents
- •Chlorides
- •Clinical significance
- •Organic constituents
- •Clinical significance
- •II. Ammonia
- •Clinical significance
- •Increase
- •Uric acid
- •Clinical significance
- •Clinical aspect
- •Creatinine and creatine
- •Oxalic Acid
- •Clinical significance
- •Aminoacids
- •Aminoacidurias
- •Abnormal constituents
- •Proteins
- •Proteinuria
Hormones of adrenal glands
Glucocorticoids: chemical structure, target-cells, mechanism of action, physiological effects
Adrenal cortex is source of gluco- and mineralocorticoids. Glucocorticoids are cortisol (hydrocortizone), cortizone and corticosterone. They are formed in zona fasciculata of adrenal cortex.
Chemical structure: All glucocorticosteroids are derivatives of cholesterol, have double bond between C4 and C5 and ketogroup in C3. Cortisol has OH-groups in C11 and C17; cortizone has got OH group in C17; corticosterone in C11.
Target-cells are cells of skin, liver, thimus, splen, adipose, muscular and connective tissues
Mechanism of action – 2-nd one
Physiological action:
The influence on Protein metabolism: 1) cleavage of muscular proteins; 2) synthesis of enzymes in liver
The influence on Carbohydrates metabolism: 1) gluconeogenesis from amino acids (main effect on the level of glucose in blood plasma); 2) increase of glycogenogenesis (but this effect is less than gluconeogenesis therefore the level of glucose in blood plasma is increased); 3) decrease of permeability of plasma membranes of peripheral tissues for glucose; 4) decrease of usage of glucose in tissues because glycolysis is decreased
The influence on lipids metabolism: 1) glucocorticoids decrease lipogenesis in legs and lower part of the body, but increase lipogenesis in face and upper part of the body; 2) they cause lipolysis and subsequent ketogenesis
Antiinflammatory and antiallergic action because they inhibit cyclooxigenase which is a key enzyme of prostanoids formation. Prostanoids are mediators of inflammation and allergy. Beside of this they supress immune system and cause aging involution of thimus
Mineralocorticoids: chemical structure, target-cells, mechanism of action, physiological effects
Mineralocorticosteroids are formed in zona glamerulosa of adrenal cortex. There are next mineralocorticosteroids: 1) aldosterone and 2) deoxycorticosterone
Chemical structure: they are derivatives of cholesterol, have double bond between C4 and C5, ketogroup in C3 and aldehyde group in C13
Target-cells: are cells of kidneys, intestinal mucosa, salivary glands, sweat glands, urinary tract, urinary bladder, skin, myocardium and liver
Physiological effects they influence on synthesis of oxireductase and Na-K-ATP-ase. Therefore synthesis of ATP and its cleavage with production of energy for reabsorption of Na and water is increased. Pottassium and protons are excreted. Thus, aldosterone regulates osmotic pressure and acidic-base balance
The concept of hyper- and hypofunction of adrenal cortex
Hyperfunction of adreanl cortex is named Icenko-Kushing syndrome. For this statement are characteristically weakness due to deminishing of usage of glucose in tissues; loss of muscular mass due to increased of cleavage of muscular proteins; redistribution of fat; osteoporosis, decreased resistance to infections; alkalosis; increased acidity of gastric juice and steroid diabetes.
Hypofunction of adreanl cortex is named Addison disease (bronz disease). For this disease are characteristically pigmentation of skin due to increased formation of melanin; decreased level of glucose in blood plasma (1.7-2.7mM/l); hypotonia, vomiting, decreased acidity of gastric juice. The level of pottassium is increased and concentration of sodium and chlorine is decreased
Hormones of adrenal medulla: formation, receptors, mechanism of action, secondary messengars, target-cells, biochemical and physiological effects of catecholamines
Adreanlin (epinephrine) and noradrenalin (norepinephrine) are formed in adrenal medulla. Norepinephrine is also formed in neuron’s ends:
Table 9 Main feature of catecholamines
Features |
Adrenalin |
Noradrenalin |
Receptors |
Beta-adrenoreceptors |
Alfa-adrenoreceptors |
Target-cells |
Vessels of heart, liver and brain |
Peripheral vessels (vessels of skin and muscles) |
Secondary messengers |
c.AMP |
Alfa1 – Ca, DAG and ITP Alfa2 – decrease of c.AMP |
Biochemical effects |
Increase of glycogenolysis Increase of lipolysis Ketogenesis |
|
Physiological effects |
Dilation of vessels of heart, liver and brain (blood supplying of these organs is improved) |
Constriction of peripheral vessels (increase of blood pressure) |
Regulation of secretion of hormones of adrenal glands
Corticotropin-releasing factor
Corticotropin Nerve impulse
Secretion of glucocorticoids
Secretion of catecholamines
Decrease of sodium in blood plasma (increase of pottassium) Decrease of BP
Secretion of aldosterone Renin
Angiotensin II