2. Scan the paragraph below. What elements are essential to conclude any diplomatic negotiations?

There are two elements essential to concluding any diplomatic negotiations. There should be:

a- Common interests

b- Issues of conflict

Although common interests are one of the logical conditions for negotiation, some governments may go into negotiations even if they were convinced that a base of immediate common interests did not exist. They may realize that its failure to negotiate will probably harm it politically at home, may make it seem inflexible by the international or regional public opinion, may embarrass its allies, antagonize neutral states, or infuriate member states of a regional organization, of which it is a member. Issues of conflict are essential for negotiation, because without such issues there are no need for negotiation

3. Skim the paragraph below and highlight the purpose of convincing, bargaining and concessions in the process of diplomatic negotiations

There are some concepts that should be clear in the negotiator’s mind, such as “convincing” and “bargaining”. Convincing is the effort exerted by the negotiator to make the other party understand why his demands are of great importance. At the same time, a negotiator may show that the counterpart’s demands are exaggerated, and are impossible to accept, and that logic and reason, not passion or enthusiasm should prevail. Bargaining on the other hand is characterized by concessions and conditioned offers, and perhaps by using incentives or disincentives, or the carrot and the baton. Also the linkage strategy can be used, to encourage the other party to be moderate, by convincing him that reaching a solution of the negotiated dispute will determine the privileges or disadvantages in other important issues.

As for concessions, one should be aware that there are variations in the seriousness in granting concessions. There are some concessions that if given, cannot be drawn back later on. Other concessions offered by the counterpart can be withdrawn, and in that case they lose much of their value in bargaining. Possible violations of an agreement, should be discussed, to see if they can be detected in time, and if they have to be included in the text of the agreement or in an annex.

4. Scan the paragraph below and highlight the main difference between types of negotiations

Bilateral negotiations are easier to deal with than multilateral ones, especially if there is no cultural homogeneity between negotiators representing different countries. The same difficulty exists if there are preconditions or dogmas that have to be dealt with. Multilateralism requires that negotiators are well vested of all details of the conflict, and all other parties’ needs and demands. The language and tactics used in bilateral negotiations are different of the ones used in multilateral negotiations. The latter, for instance should consider the interests of all parties concerned which may constitute an obstacle to reach a consensus, unless concessions are granted to each party.

Diplomatic negotiation requires an agenda that is agreed upon by all parties. Striking a balance between threats and real power is essential. It is preferable not to resort to the use of threats in such a way that loses its impact, making the counterpart immune against them. It is preferable to have a deterrence, in case the counterpart insists on his stance, without enough justification, and also in case negotiations are about to be unilaterally and abruptly terminated by the counterpart.