Chronology

Archaeologists have different definitions of Byzantine archaeology in various parts

of the eastern Mediterranean. For those working in Jordan, Israel, and Syria, but

also Egypt, the term is defined as the Christian period in the eastern Roman empire

from the Tetrarchy (C.300 CE) to the Arab invasions in the 640s; a period which

many others would prefer to describe as Late Antique rather than Byzantine, and

for which a specific archaeology has emerged (see Lavan and Bowden 2003). For the

purposes of this introduction," however, the period begins in the later sixth century

and continues to the final conquests of the Ottomans between 1453 and 1461. Further,

we need to consider the geographical definition of Byzantine lands and in this

chapter these are confined to a core area of the modern republics of Greece, Turkey,

and Bulgaria. A good case could be made to include parts of Italy, Albania, the

southern republics of former Yugoslavia, the Crimea, and Cyprus, but for brevity

they are excluded, although specific studies will be noted as relevant. Each of these

three core states emerged from the Ottoman empire during the nineteenth and early

twentieth centuries (Finkel 2005) and in each there were differing responses to the

creation of new national identities, which in turn had a direct influence on the

divergent character of the developing archaeologies of Byzantium found in each.

National agenda

In contemporary Greece, although the Byzantine past is seen as a core element

of the national identity, Byzantine archaeology is organized separately from the

archaeology of the prehistoric and classical periods, both in the museums and the

administration of state archaeology, the regional ephorates—thus maintaining a

dichotomy in Greek culture between the classical and the Christian medieval pasts.

The consequence of this is that classical and earlier periods have often been given

greater significance to the detriment of the study and preservation of the Byzantine

past (see Kotsakis in Meskell 1998: 54-5). In addition, until recently, there has

been an overwhelming emphasis on ecclesiastical archaeology; this is not surprising

given the background to the foundation of the main museum and of the discipline

as part of the wider European interest in early Christian archaeology (Frend 1996;

Konstantios 2004: 9-13).

In Bulgaria, independent from the Ottoman empire after 1878, medieval archaeology

has fared better as part of the wider national agenda, with benefits for the

wider field of Byzantine archaeology. The medieval First and Second Bulgarian

empires were seen to provide a legitimacy for the new Bulgarian state and from

the late nineteenth century the centres of the early kingdoms at Pliska, Preslav, and

later Turnovo were the focus for major excavations, although since the majority

of the reports are in Bulgarian the full significance of these has not always been

recognized (see Mijatev and others 1974). In Sofia medieval antiquities are divided

equally between the National Archaeological and National Historical Museums,

with major regional collections at Preslav, Shumen, and Veliko Turnovo (Evans

and Wixom 1997: 321-35), while medieval Bulgarian and Byzantine archaeology are

components of the National Institute of Archaeology.

The republic of Turkey is the most recent of these new nation states (1923) and

although it is defined as a secular state, the population is predominantly Muslim

following the population exchanges after the Treaty of Lausanne (1922) (see a survey

of Turkish archaeology by Ozdgan, in Meskell 1998:111-23 and for the disjunctions

with Greek archaeology see Ousterhout and Bakirtzis 2007: 1-6). The prehistoric

archaeology of Anatolia has played a crucial role in the creation of a new Turkish

national identity, most clearly displayed in the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations

in Ankara where only limited exhibits of the classical and later periods are presented

in opposition to the wealth from the more distant past. By contrast the Archaeological

Museum in Istanbul is a late nineteenth-century foundation and represents

the wider possessions of the Ottoman empire and at the same time exhibits

the treasures of the Byzantine city. Public archaeology is administered through

regional museums and Byzantine archaeologists remain underrepresented since

only recently has there been a growth in the number of degree programmes which

include Byzantine archaeology and art history. In addition, with few exceptions

(notably Semevi Eyice and Yildiz Ottiken), the majority of projects concerned with

Byzantine archaeology were led by foreign academics, either as part of long-term

projects such as the Austrian excavations at Ephesos, or of specific monuments

like Alahan, studied by a British team. With the rapid expansion of universities

in Turkey over the past decade this situation has significantly improved and in

addition numbers of Turkish graduates have studied in Europe and elsewhere

ensuring a broader approach to the national archaeology.