CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

Introductory

What is agriculture ?

1 ; Agriculture and the sciences,

2 ; Agriculture and the industries,

2 ; Opportunities in

agriculture are varied,

3 ; Divisions of agriculture,

4 ;Phases of agronomy,

4 ; Scope of this book,

PART I. THE PLANT

CHAPTER II

The Plant and Its Environment

Factors of plant growth, 10 ; Length of season, 12 ;

Frost, 13 ; temperature, 14 ; Water, 16 ; Sunlight, 18 ;

Wind, 19 ; Soil, 19 ; Pests, 20 ; Adapted crops, 21.

CHAPTER III

Plant Structure

Cells, 23 ; Tissues, 25 ; Kind of plant, 26 ; Crop plants,

26; Plant parts, 27 ; The root, 27 ; The stein, 30; The

leaf, 36; The flower, 36; The seed, 37; Buds and

branches, 37 ; Underground stems, 37.

CHAPTER IV

Plant Functions

Growth, 39 ; Respii-ation, 41 ; Photosynthesis, 42 ;

Osmosis, 44; Transpiration, 46; Translocation, 48;

Transportation, 48 ; Response, 49.

CHAPTER V

The Plant as a Factory

Interdependence of plants and animals, 61 ; Depend-

ence of man on plants, 61 ; Domestication, 63 ; Plant

compounds, 64 ; Flavors, 64 ; Water, 66 ; Carbohydrates,

66 ; Protein, 66 ; Ash, 56 ; Fats and oils, 66 ; The plant

factory, 67 ; Animal concentration, 69 ; Storage, 69 ;

Harvest, 61 ; Control of the harvest, 62.

CHAPTER VI

What thb Soil Is

Definition, 67 ; Permanence of soils, 68 ; Economic

importance of the soil, 68 ; Conservation of the soil, 68 ;

Need of better soil management, 69.

CHAPTER VII

Orioin and Formation of Soils . . . . . 70-80

Minerals and rocks, 70 ; Soil-forming minerals, 70 ;

Quartz, 71 ; The feldspars, 71 ; Hornblende and pyrox-

ene, 71 ; Mica, 71 ; Chlorite, 72 ; Zeolites, 72 ; Calcite,

72 ; Dolomite, 73 ; Gypsum, 73 ; Apatite, 73 ; Soil-form-

ing rocks, 73 ; Methods of soil formation, 74 ; Action of

heat and cold, 74; Action of water, 76; Ice, 76; The

atmosphere, 78 ; Plants and animals, 78 ; Classification

of soils, 79.

CHAPTER VIII

Physical Properties op the Soil 81-89

Soil texture, 81 ; Groups according to texture, 82 ; Re-

lation of texture to water-holding capacity, 83; Soil

structure, 83 ; How to modify structure, 84 ; Specific

gravity of soils, 86 ; Air in the soil, 86 ; Heat of the soil,

87 ; The organic matter of the soil, 88 ; Maintaining the

organic matter, 88.

CHAPTER IX

The Water of the Soil

Origin of soil water, 90 ; Variations in soil moisture,

91 ; The condition of soil moisture, 91 ; Free water, 91 ;

Capillary water, 92 ; Hygroscopic water, 92 ; Other crit-

ical points, 93 ; Quantity of water in field soils, 93 ;

Methods of expressing the quantity of water, 94 ; Loss

of soil moisture, 94; Need for preventing evaporation,

94; The water-table, 95 ; The movements of soil mois-

ture, 96 ; Use of soil water, 96 ; Quantity of water used

by plants, 96.

CHAPTER X

The Contbol of Soil Water

Irrigation : Increasing the soil moisture, 98 ; Sources

of water supply, 100 ; Measurement of water, 102 ; Meth-

ods of applying water, 103 ; The amount of water to use,

104 ; When to irrigate, 106 ; Over irrigation, 106 ; Need

for economy, 106. Drainage : Removing excessive

water, 107 ; Removing alkali, 108 ; Benefits of drainage,

108 ; Kinds of drainage, 109 ; Installing the drains, 110.

Dry-farming: Scope of dry-farming, 111; The ques-

tion of rainfall. 111 ; Di*y-farm soils, 113 ; Dry-farm

crops, 115 ; Tillage methods, 116.

CHAPTER XI

Plant-food of the Soil 118-124

What plants use from the soil, 118 ; Composition of

soils, 119 ; The analysis of soils, 120 ; Available and re-

serve plant-food, 121 ; Making plant-food available, 121 ;

Quantity of plant-food removed by plants, 121 ; Plant-

foods that are scarce, 122 ; Exhaustion of the soil, 123 ;

Losses in plant-food, 123 ; Plant-food in organic matter,

124 ; Relation of plant-food to value of a soil, 124.

CHAPTER XII

PAGBS

Manures and Fertilizers 125-137

Types of fertilizers, 126 ; How to determine fertilizer

needs, 126 ; Nitrogen fertilizers, 127 ; Nitrogen fixation,

128 ; Phosphorus fertilizers, 128 ; Potassium fertilizers,

129 ; Lime, 129 ; Indirect fertilizers, 130 ; Home-mixing

of fertilizers, 130 ; Value of farm manure, 131 ; Kinds

of farm manure, 132 ; Losses in manure, 133 ; Handling

farm manure, 134 ; How to fertilize different crops, 136 ;

Green manures, 136.

CHAPTER XIII

Organisms of the Soil 138-144

Kinds of soil organisms, 138 ; Bacteria, 139 ; The

number of bacteria in the soil, 139 ; Kinds of bacteria,

139 ; How bacteria grow, 140 ; Relation to humus for-

mation, 141 ; Relation to nitrogen, 141 ; The fixation of

nitrogen, 142 ; Nitrification and denitrification, 143 ;

Bacteria and the farmer, 144.

CHAPTER XIV

Tillage and Crop Rotations 145-163

Improving soil structure, 146 ; Controlling weeds, 147 ;

Covering manure and plant residues, 148 ; Conserving

moisture, 149 ; Tillage of various crops, 160 ; Reasons

for rotation of crops, 161 ; Methods of crop rotation, 152.

CHAPTER XV

Special Soil Problems 154-163

Alkali : Kinds of alkali, 155 ; Effect of alkali on plant

growth, 156 ; Reclamation of alkali lands, 156. Acidity :

Indicators of a soil acidity, 157 ; Correction of soil

acidity, 157. Erosion : Methods of preventing erosion,

158. Blowing: Prevention of blowing, 160. Methods

of judging soils : Indicator value of native vegetation,

161 ; Topography of the land, 161 ; Depth and structure

of the soil, 162 ; Chemical analysis, 162 ; Mechanical

analysis, 163 j Productivity, 163.

PART III. FIELD CROPS

CHAPTER XVI

PAOB8

Wheat 167-190

Relationships, 168 ; Roots, 168 ; The plant above

ground, 170; The kernel, 170; Varieties, 171; Distri-

bution and adaptation, 173 ; Preparation of seed-bed,

176 ; Seed and seeding, 175 ; Harvesting, 178 ; Diseases,

. 179 ; Closed smut, 179 ; Loose smut, 180 ; Rust, 180 ;

Insects, 180 ; Weeds, 181 ; Quality in wheat, 182 ; Uses

and value, 183 ; Storage, 184 ; Elevators, 186 ; Market-

ing, 187 ; Prices, 188.

CHAPTER XVII

Corn or Maize 191-207

Relationships, 191 ; Roots, 192 ; The culms, 193 ; The

leaves, 193 ; The flower, 194 ; The ear, 194 ; Types, 196 ;

Dent corn, 195 ; Flint corn, 196 ; Sweet corn, 196 ; Pop

corn, 196 ; Soft or flour com, 197 ; Pod com, 197 ; Va-

rieties, 197 ; Distribution, 197 ; Factors in production,

198 ; Adaptation, 198 ; Preparation of the seed-bed, 199 ;

Seed and planting, 200 ; Treatment of the growing crop,

201 ; Harvesting, 203 ; Silage, 208 ; Enemies, 204 ; Uses

and value, 204 ; Storage and marketing, 206.

CHAPTER XVIII

Other Cereals 208-223

Oats: Origin and relationships, 208 ; Description, 209 ;

Distribution, 210 ; Varieties, 212 ; Seeding and cultiva-

tion, 212 ; Harvesting and marketing, 212 ; Uses, 213 ;

Enemies, 214. Barley: Description, 216 ; Distribution

and adaptation, 216 ; Sowing and cultivation, 216 ; Har-

vesting and marketing, 217 ; Enemies and uses, 218.

Sye : Description and distribution, 219 ; Handling the

crop, 220 ; Uses, 220. Bice : Description and distribu-

tion, 221 ; Uses, 221. Enemies: Description and use,

222. Buckwheat: Description, distribution, and uses,

222.

xii Contents

CHAPTER XIX

PAGES

Potatoes 224-240

Origin, 224 ; Relationships, 225 ; Description, 225 ;

Varieties, 227 ; Distribution and adaptation, 228 ; Prep-

aration of land, 230 ; Seed, 231 ; Cutting and planting,

233; Treatment during growth, 234; Harvesting and

marketing, 235 ; Storage, 235 ; Weeds and insects, 286 ;

Diseases, 236 ; Use and value, 239.

CHAPTER XX

Root Crops 241-255

Sugar-beets : History, 241 ; Description, 243 ; Adap-

tation and distribution, 243 ; Preparation of the land,

seed, and seeding, 245 ; Treatment during growth, 247 ;

Diseases, 248 ; Insects, 249 ; Harvesting, marketing, and

storage, 249 ; Use and value, 250 ; Manufacture of sugar,

251. Mangel'Wurzels : Description, 251; Use, 252;

Culture, 252. Turnips and Rutabagas: Description,

253 ; Culture, 253 ; Value, 254. Carrots : Description,

254 ; Culture and use, 255.

CHAPTER XXI

Alfalfa 256-270

Name and origin, 256; Relationships, 258; Roots,

258; Stems and leaves, 259; Flowers and seed, 260;

Varieties, 261 ; Distribution and adaptation, 261 ; Prep-

aration of the land and seeding, 263 ; Treatment during

growth, 263 ; Harvesting, 264 ; Storage, 265 ; Use and

value, 266 ; Mixtures, 267 ; Enemies, 268 ; Seed produc-

tion, 269.

CHAPTER XXII

Thb Clovers and Other Legumes 271-285

Bed clover : Description, 272 ; Distribution and adap-

tation, 272 ; Culture, 273 ; Use and value, 273. Other

clovers : Alsike clover, 274 : White clover, 274 ; Sweet

clover, 274 ; Crimson clover, 275. Field Peas : Descrip-

Contents

Xlll

PAOEB

tion and adaptation, 275 ; Sowing, 276 ; Culture and

harvesting, 277; Use, 277. Beans: Description, 278;

Culture, 278; Use, 280. Cowpeas : Description, 280;

Culture, 282. Soybeans: Description, 282; Cul-

ture, 283. Miscellaneous Legumes : Vetch, 284 ; Other

legumes, 284.

CHAPTER XXIII

Gbassbs 286^01

Timothy: Description, 288; Adaptation, 289; Cul-

ture, 289 ; Use and value, 291 ; Enemies, 292. Bedtop :

Description, 292 ; Adaptation, 292 ; Culture, 293 ; Value

and use, 293. Kentucky Blue-grass : Description, 293 ;

Adaptation, 294 ; Culture, 294 ; Use and value, 294.

Orchard- grass : Description, 296 ; Adaptation, 295 ; Cul-

ture, 295 ; Value and use, 296. Smooth Brome-grass :

Description, 297 ; Adaptation, 297 ; Culture, 297 ; Value

and use, 298. Other grasses: Tall meadow oat-grass,

299 ; Bermuda-grass, 299 ; Johnson-grass, 300 ; Miscel-

laneous grasses, 3(fl.

CHAPTER XXIV

Pastubbs, Mbadows, and Soiling Systems

Definition, 302 ; Kinds of pasture, 302 ; A good pas-

ture, 303 ; Importance, 303 ; Native grass, 304 ; Crop

plants, 304 ; Mixtures, 304 ; For different animals, 307 ;

Condition of pastures, 308 ; Improving p^tures, 308 ;

Overnstocking, 309; Management, 310; Meadows, 311.

Soiling: Use, 312 ; Value, 312; Soiling crops, 316.

302-317

CHAPTER XXV

Sorghums and Millbts

Sorghum : Origin, 318 ; Relationships, 320 ; Descrip-

tion, 320 ; Varieties, 322 ; Distribution and adaptation,

323 ; Preparation of seed-bed and seeding, 325 ; Treat-

ment during growth, 325 ; Harvesting, 326 ; Use, 327 ;

Enemies, 328; Storage and marketing, 328. Sudan-

grass : Description, 329 ; Culture, 329. Millets : Rela-

tionship and description, 330 ; Culture and value, 330 ;

Other types, 331.

318-332

XIV

Contents

PA6B8

333-^2

CHAPTER XXVI

Fibers and Miscellaneous Crops .....

Fibers: Cotton. History, 333; Relationships, 334 j

Description, 335 ; Adaptation, 335 ; Culture, 336 ; Har-

vesting and marketing, 337 ; Use, 337. Flax : Descrip-

tion, 338; Adaptation, 338; Culture, 338; Use and

value, 340. Other fibers : Hemp, 340 ; Miscellaneous

fibers, 341. Miscellaneous crops: Cabbage and kohl-

rabi, 342 ; Rape, 343 ; Kale, 343 ; Enemies, 343. To-

bacco : Distribution, 345 ; Culture, 345 ; Curing and

marketing, 345 ; Sugar-cane, 346 ; Sweet potatoes, 347 ;

Fruits, 349 ; Truck crops, 349 ; Timber crop, 361 ; Other

crops, 351.

CHAPTER XXVn

Improvement of Crop

What is improvement ? 354 ; Ideal sought, 356 ; Cul-

tivation, 357 ; Seed-testing, 357 ; Reproduction, 359 ;

Variation, 359 ; Natural selection, 360 ; AHificial selec-

tion, 360 ; The best plants should be chosen, 361 ; Va-

riety tests, 362 ; Steps in breeding, 362 ; Crossing, 362 ;

MendePs law, 363 ; Importance of large numbers, 364 ;

Better seed, 364.

CHAPTER XXVIII

Weeds 366-378

Definition, 366 ; Classification, 367 ; Occurrence, 368 ;

Dissemination, 364 ; Losses from weeds, 370 ; Preven-

tion, 372; Eradication, 373; General principles, 375;

Herbicides, 376 ; Summary, 377-

353-365

PAET IV. FIELD MANAGEMENT

CHAPTER XXIX

Planning the Farm 381-386

Plan should be stable, 381; Number of enterprises,

383 ; The farmstead, 383 ; Arrangement and number of

fields^ 384 ; Size and shape of fields, 384 ; Fences and

ditches, 385 ; Use of waste places, 386.

Contents

XV

CHAPTER XXX

What Crops to Grow

Crop adaptation, 387 ; Diversity of crops, 388 ; Crop

specialties, 389; Conditions for various crops, 891;

Work in producing various crops, 391.

PAOKS

387-391

CHAPTER XXXI

Equipment of the Farm

The farmer as a mechanic, 392 ; Extremes in farm

equipment, 393 ; Machines that get out of date, 394 ;

Machines that are seldom used, 396 ; Size of machinery,

396 ; The duty of machinery, 396 ; Depreciation, 396 ;

Caring for machinery, 397 ; Suitable farm buildings, 398.

392-399

CHAPTER XXXII

Factors of Success in Crop Production

Size of farm, 300 ; Capital, 401 ; Proper type of farm-

ing, 402 ; Good management, 402 ; Keeping records,

403 ; Profits to a farmer vs, yields to the acre, 403 ;

Profits from man and horse labor, 404 ; Understanding

each crop, 404 ; Markets, 404.

400-406

Appendix A.

Appendix B.

Appendix C.

Appendix D.

Appendix E.

Appendix F.

Appendix G.

APPENDICES .... 407-430

Addresses of Agricultural. Colleges and Ex-

periment Stations and of the United States

Department of Agriculture . . . 408

Laboratory Guides 411

Fertility in Farm Produce .... 412

Composition, Amount, and Value of Manure

Produced by Different Kinds of Farm

Animals 413

Weights and Measures 414

Quantity of Seed Planted to the Acre . . 416

Most Common Weights of Seeds to the

Bushel 417

xvi Contents

PAOK

Appendix H. Measuring Rules 418

Appendix I. Rules for Measuring Hay in the Stack . . 410

Appendix J. Wheat Harvest Calendar .... 420

Appendix K. Prices of Wheat on a Chicago Market (1863-

1910) 421

Appendix L. Crop Statistics for Continental United States 423

Appendix M. Plowing as affected by Shape of the Field . 424

Appendix N. Average Depreciation a Year and Cost to

the Acre for Farm Machinery . . . 425

Appendix O. Glossary 426

THE PRINCIPLES OF AGRONOMY

THE PRmCIPLES OF AGRONOMY

CHAPTER I

Introductory

Agbicxjlture is so broad in its scope and practice, that

it is related to almost every branch of human learning.

All the industries and professions of man are in some

way connected with the land and its products. The

welfare of manufacturer, merchant, railroad man, lawyer,

and doctor is so dependent on agricultural prosperity

that these men are necessarily interested in this great

subject. Since agriculture embraces such a wide field,

it is necessary to define and subdivide, in order to obtain

a clear idea of its various branches.

1. What is agriculture ? — Agriculture may be defined

as the art, the science, and the business of producing

plants and animals for economic purposes.

As an art, it embraces a knowledge of the way to per-

form the operations of the farm in a skillful manner,

but does not necessarily include an understanding of the

principles underlying farm practices. The ability to

plow well, to make a good stack of hay, and to handle

live-stock indicates training in the handicrafts of agri-

culture.

The science of agriculture deals with the principles

underlying the production of plants and animals, with-

out regard to skill in the practices of farming. A person

B 1

"•! •-, .....••

•-•

m\ mkles of Agronomy

meiy*ufLdeflri$tand-<he:didtheds by which hay is digested

in the stomach of a cow, and how milk is secreted ; he

may be familiar with the composition of milk and the

processes it undergoes in the manufacture of butter or

cheese; and still he may not know how even to milk a

cow. He has training in the underlying scientific prin-

ciples of agriculture, but not in the art or handicraft.

Agriculture is a business, since it is practiced primarily

as a means of securing a living. Usually a farmer is not

interested in the art and science of agriculture except as

they contribute to his making a better livelihood. Science

helps him to understand why he does certain things, and

gives him a foundation for his practices ; he acquires skill

in the practices in order to increase production and,

through it, to extend his income.

2. Agriculture and the sciences. — The assertion is

sometimes made that if a person were familiar with all

the sciences, he would not need to study agriculture.

This is probably true, but no one person is able to master

all the sciences ; even if he were able to do so, he would

need to learn some of the applications of science to the

land before finishing his studies of pure science.

The real condition, however, is that those who have

most to do with the land have little time for extensive

study of science, although they desire a brief knowledge

of some of the principles underlying the industry in which

they are engaged. This justifies the teaching of agri-

culture even to those who have had little training in the

so-called pure sciences. The better one understands the

natural and social sciences, however, the better will one

be able to comprehend the principles and problems of

agriculture.