Unit 13 модальные глаголы (modal verbs)

Модальные глаголы используются для того, чтобы показать отношение говорящего к действию.

МОДАЛЬНЫЙ ГЛАГОЛ CAN

1.Временные формы

PRESENT	PAST	FUTURE
I can do this work. I am able to do this work.	I could do this work. I was able to do this work.	I’ll be able to do this work.

Примечания:

1. После модального глагола can (could) используется инфинитив без частицы to.

2. To be able to – эквивалент модального глагола can.

2. Употребление

USAGE	EXAMPLES
1. Выражает физическую или умственную способность совершить действие:	This bag is too heavy. I can hardly carry it. Эта сумка слишком тяжелая. Я едва могу нести ее. I can translate this text without a dictionary. Я могу перевести этот текст без словаря.
2. Выражает невозможность совершить действие:	I could not take part in the discussion because I was busy. Я не мог принять участие в обсуждении, потому что я был занят.
3. Выражает удивление, сомнение:	Can she be waiting for us? Может ли быть, что она нас ждет? She cannot be waiting for us. Не может быть, чтобы она нас ждала.
4. Используется для выражения вежливых просьб (только модальный глагол could):	Could you help me? Не мог бы ты мне помочь?

МОДАЛЬНЫЙ ГЛАГОЛ MAY

1. Временные формы

PRESENT	PAST	FUTURE
I may open the window. Я могу открыть окно. I am allowed to open the window. Мне разрешают открыть окно.	I might open the window. Я мог открыть окно. I was allowed to open the window. Мне разрешили открыть окно.	I’ll be allowed to open the window. Мне разрешат открыть окно.

Примечания:

3. После модального глагола may (might) используется инфинитив без частицы to.

4. To be allowed to – эквивалент модального глагола may.

2. Употребление

USAGE	EXAMPLES
1. Выражает разрешение:	May I use your phone? Я могу воспользоваться твоим телефоном?
2. Выражает запрет (в отрица-тельных предложениях):	You may not smoke here. Здесь нельзя курить.
3. Выражает просьбу:	May I trouble you for a glass of water? Можно у тебя попросить стакан воды?
4. Используется для выражения предположения:	Take an umbrella. It may rain. Возьми зонт. Возможно, будут дождь.

МОДАЛЬНЫЙ ГЛАГОЛ MUST

1. Временные формы

PRESENT	PAST	FUTURE
You must do this work. Ты должен сделать эту работу. I have to do this work. Я вынуждена сделать эту работу.	I had to do this work. Я была вынуждена сде-лать эту работу.	I’ll have to do this work. Я буду вынуждена сде-лать эту работу.

Примечания:

5. После модального глагола must используется инфинитив без частицы to.

6. To have to – эквивалент модального глагола must.

2. Употребление

USAGE	EXAMPLES
1. Выражает необходимость, обязательность совершения действия:	He must do this work in time. Он должен сделать эту работу в срок. Отсутствие необходимости в совершении действия выражается с помощью need not: Must I go there? Yes, you must. No, you needn’t.
2. Выражает команду, настоятельную просьбу или запрет:	You must leave the room at once. Ты должен сейчас же выйти из комнаты.
3. Выражает предположение или вероятность:	He must be waiting for us. Он, должно быть (наверняка), ждет нас.

МОДАЛЬНЫЕ ГЛАГОЛЫ SHOULD И OUGHT TO

USAGE	EXAMPLES
1. Выражает моральный долг:	He ought to behave well. He should behave well. Он должен вести себя хорошо.
2. Выражает совет (чаще используется should):	You should be careful. Вам следует быть осторожным.
3. Выражает упрек:	You should have done this work. Тебе следовало бы сделать эту работу.

МОДАЛЬНОЕ ВЫРАЖЕНИЕ TO BE + INFINITIVE

USAGE	EXAMPLES
Используется для выражения договора или соглашения (часть плана):	We were to meet after the lecture. Мы должны были встретиться после лекции. You are to present this paper at the end of the term. Вы должны представить доклад в конце семестра.

EXERCISES

1. a) Refer the following sentences to the past.

Pattern: He can install this equipment.

He could install this equipment.

He was able to install this equipment.

1. She can translate this English article. 2. He can’t finish this work in time. 3. Can they compile programs? 4. Nobody can do it better.

b) Refer the following sentences to the future.

Pattern: He can install this equipment.

He will be able to install this equipment.

1. He can take part in the competition. 2. They can make a good report. 3. I can’t buy this book. 4. Can you understand it?

2. Translate the sentences into Russian.

1. Numbers can be multiplied in any order. 2. Fractions cannot be added if they have no common denominator. 3. Will you be able to solve this problem? 4. They could have taken their examination yesterday. 5. Computers are able to store information in binary patterns. 6. We shall be able to examine this apparatus tomorrow. 7. You could have asked him to help you in your calculations. 8. Can it be true? 9. Can he know programming well? 10. He can’t have read this book very quickly. 11. Can she still be speaking to the dean? 12. Can he have succeeded in solving all the problems? 13. Lines of text can be rearranged on the screen or sent to the printer. 14. Can you install this device?

3. a) Refer the following sentences to the past.

Pattern: He may be present at the meeting.

He might be present at the meeting.

He was allowed to be present at the meeting.

1. He may use my computer. 2. You may go for a walk. 3. We may put off the meeting till tomorrow. 4. You may come in.

b) Refer the following sentences to the future.

Pattern: He may be present at the meeting.

He will be allowed to be present at the meeting.

1. He may speak to her. 2. I may join them. 3. I may rewrite my test. 4. He may delay the meeting with his advisor.

4. Translate into Russian.

1. May I use these diagrams? 2. They may have worked in the laboratory yesterday. 3. The instrument may have been improved because it has become better. 4. They were allowed to take these mathematical magazines home. 5. He may study at the University. 6. He may not have heard the news that’s why he looks as if nothing had happened. 7. May I ask you to explain this rule once more? 8. He may ring me up in the evening. 9. He may have rung me up in the evening.

5. a) Refer the following sentences to the past.

Pattern: He must go there.

He had to go there.

1. She must translate this English article. 2. He must speak to her. 3. The students must to write this test again. 4. They must stay at home.

b) Refer the following sentences to the future.

Pattern: He must go there.

He will have to go there.

1. He must take part in the discussion. 2. He must learn the new words. 3. Must you speak to him? 4. I must listen to him.

6. Translate into Russian.

1. You’ll have to repeat the experiment. 2. He must have worked hard at his English. 3. It must have taken him much time to prepare for the exam. 4. I could find nothing on mathematical logic in these books and I had to look through a lot of scientific magazines. 5. You will have to work hard to finish the work in time. 6. You must turn this fraction into a mixed number. 7. We had to perform long computations to check the answer. 8. The results must be available in some way to the user. 9. Most data must eventually be stored on disk for later use.

7. Translate into Russian.

1. You should consult a specialist before you take a decision. 2. You should have tested the device more carefully. 3. You should have been more careful with this instrument. 4. She ought to have known this rule better. 5. They should have been examined the machine again. 6. Our laboratory should be provided with all necessary instruments. 7. You ought to be careful with electrical appliances. 8. You are to be in time. 9. You were to translate this article from English into Russian using a dictionary. 10. We are to meet at 2 p.m.

8. Translate the text into English.

ОПТИЧЕСКИЙ КОМПЬЮТЕР

С 1970 года стало очевидным (apparent), что существует возможность (possibility) для создания (construction) вычислительного устройства (device), в котором сигналы способны передаваться лучами лазерной радиации, а не электрическим током (by beams of laser radiation rather than electric currents). Есть мощный стимул (powerful incentive), чтобы разработать оптический компьютер (to work out an optical computer). Он может работать быстрее, чем электронный компьютер. При создании оптического компьютера должны быть использованы разнообразные схемы (various circuits). Многие из элементов, нужные для создания интегрированной оптической схемы (needed to make an integrated optical circuit), конструкторы уже продемонстрировали.

TEXT 1

COMPUTER PROGRAMMING

Computer programming is the process of preparing a set of coded instructions which enables the computer to solve specific problems or to perform specific functions.

The phase in which the system’s computer programs are written is called the development phase. During this phase programmers are to write lists of instructions that will be followed by the central processing unit (CPU). The instructions of the program must be complete and in an appropriate order. Any data used by a program has to be described so that compiler knows how to store and retrieve it.

In order to avoid errors in programming logic plans should be developed. There are two common techniques for planning the logic of a program. The first technique is flowcharting. A flowcharting is a plan in the form of a graphic or pictorial representation that uses predefined symbols to illustrate the program logic. It is, therefore, a “picture” of the logical steps to be performed by the computer. The second technique for planning program logic is called pseudocode. Pseudocode is an imitation of actual program instructions. It is less time-consuming for the professional programmer than flowcharting.

TASKS

1. Give Russian equivalents of the words and transcribe them.

1. process (n.), (v.)

2. specific (adj.)

3. appropriate (adj.)

4. error (n.)

5. technique (n.)

6. pseudocode (n.)

2. Give English equivalents of:

1. cовокупность закодированных команд (инструкций)

2. решать особые задачи

3. выполнять особые функции

4. компьютерные программы

5. стадия разработки

6. список (перечень) инструкций

7. центральный процессор

8. необходимая (требуемая) последовательность

9. сохранять и извлекать

10. для того, чтобы избежать ошибок

11. построение блок-схемы

12. наглядное представление

13. заранее заданные символы

14. затратный по времени

3. Read and translate the text.

4. Match A and B

A

1. Computer programming

2. A development phase

3. A logic plan

4. A flowcharting

5. Pseudocode

B

1. … is an imitation of actual program instructions.

2. … is a period of time during which the computer programs are being written.

3. … is the process of preparing a set of coded instructions which enables the computer to solve specific problems or to perform specific functions.

4. … is a plan in the form of a graphic or pictorial representation that uses predefined symbols to illustrate the program logic.

5. … is a sequence of instructions.

5. Finish up the sentences.

1. The author starts with the definition of computer programming. According to this definition… .

2. Then the author defines a development phase. It is… .

3. During this phase as the author writes a programmer should develop a logic plan which can be defined as… .

4. As to the logic plans they are … and … .

5. A flowcharting is … .

6. Pseudocode is… .

6. Give a brief summery of the text.

Expressions to be used:

1. The text is devoted to… .

2. The text deals with… .

3. The text is concerned with… .

4. The text informs on (about) … .

TEXT 2

PROGRAM ERRORS

A computer program may run from just a few instructions to many millions of instructions, as in a program for a word processor or a web browser. A typical modern computer can execute billions of instructions per second and rarely make a mistake over many years of operation. Large computer programs consisting of several million instructions may take years to write, and due to the complexity such programs may contain errors.

Errors in computer programs are called “bugs”. Bugs may be benign and not affect the usefulness of the program, or have only subtle effects. But in some cases they may cause the program to “hang” – become unresponsive to input such as mouse clicks or keystrokes. Sometimes bugs are made for malicious intent to take advantage of a bug and disrupt a program's proper execution. Bugs are nearly always the result of programmer error or an oversight made in the program's design.

TASKS

1. Give Russian equivalents of the words and transcribe them.

1. processor (n.)

2. execute (v.)

3. execution (n.)

4. rarely (adv.)

5. error (n.)

6. benign (adj.)

7. affect (v.)

8. subtle (adj.)

9. keystroke (n.)

10. malicious (adj.)

11. disrupt (v.)

12. oversight (n.)

2. Read and translate the text.

3. Finish up the sentences.

1. Bugs are … .

2. They may be benign and malicious.

3. Benign bugs… .

4. Malicious bugs… .

4. Give a brief summery of the text.

Expressions to be used:

5. The text under consideration is devoted to… .

6. The text under consideration deals with… .

7. The text under consideration is concerned with… .

8. The text under consideration informs on (about) … .

9. The text under consideration touches upon the problem of … .

ТЕКСТ 3

ТИПЫ ПРОГРАММНОГО ОБЕСПЕЧЕНИЯ

A

Компьютеру необходимо не только аппаратное обеспечение (hardware), а также и программное обеспечение (software) – программы для управления операциями компьютера или электронными данными (programs for directing the operations of a computer or electronic data). Программы компьютера инструктируют аппаратные средства, как провести обработку (how to conduct processing). Компьютеры могут вводить, вычислять, сравнивать (compare) и выводить данные. Программное обеспечение определяет порядок (deter­mines the order), в котором эти операции должны быть выполнены.

Обычно программы подразделяют на две категории: системное программное обеспечение (system software) и прикладные программы (application software). Кроме двух этих основных категорий также имеется программное обеспечение связи (communication software).

Системное программное обеспечение является совокупностью программ, которые управляет стандартными внутренними действиями компьютера (control standard internal computer activities). Системные программы разработаны для определенных частей аппаратных средств (are designed for the specific pieces of hardware). Эти программы называются драйверами. Они координируют периферийные аппаратные средства и действия компьютера (computer activities). Пользователю следует установить (install) определенный драйвер, чтобы активировать периферийное устройство. Например, если пользователь собирается купить принтер или сканер, он должен заранее позаботиться о драйвере (he needs to worry about the driver program in advance), хотя обычно он идет вместе с вашим устройством (it goes along with your device).

Прикладное программное обеспечение удовлетворяет определенную потребность (satisfies a specific need). Разработчики прикладного программного обеспечения стараются включать максимальные возможности в одну программу (tend to include as much as possible in one program), чтобы интерфейс программного обеспечения выглядел наиболее привлекательным для пользователя (to make software interface look more attractive to the user).

Программное обеспечение связи используется для передачи данных в пределах и между компьютерными системами (within and between computers systems). Эти программы обычно обеспечивают защиту данных (data security) и проверку на наличие ошибок (error checking) наряду с физической передачей данных между двумя компьютерами (along with physically transferring data between the two computers).

B

Компьютеру необходимо не только аппаратное обеспечение, а также и программное обеспечение – программы для управления операциями компьютера или электронными данными. Программы компьютера инструктируют аппаратные средства, как провести обработку. Компьютеры могут вводить, вычислять, сравнивать и выводить данные. Программное обеспечение определяет порядок, в котором эти операции должны быть выполнены.

Обычно программы подразделяют на две категории: системное программное обеспечение и прикладные программы. Кроме двух этих основных категорий также имеется программное обеспечение связи.

Системное программное обеспечение является совокупностью программ, которые управляет стандартными внутренними действиями компьютера. Системные программы разработаны для определенных частей аппаратных средств. Эти программы называются драйверами. Они координируют периферийные аппаратные средства и действия компьютера. Пользователю следует установить определенный драйвер, чтобы активировать периферийное устройство. Например, если пользователь собирается купить принтер или сканер, он должен заранее позаботиться о драйвере, хотя обычно он идет вместе с вашим устройством.

Прикладное программное обеспечение удовлетворяет определенную потребность. Разработчики прикладного программного обеспечения стараются включать максимальные возможности в одну программу, чтобы интерфейс программного обеспечения выглядел наиболее привлекательным для пользователя.

Программное обеспечение связи используется для передачи данных в пределах и между компьютерными системами. Эти программы обычно обеспечивают защиту данных и проверку на наличие ошибок наряду с физической передачей данных между двумя компьютерами.

TASKS

1. Translate into English the text under the letter A, then – under the letter B.

2. Define the following:

1. Software

2. System software

3. Application software

4. Communication software

3. Choose the statement which deals with the content of the whole text.

1. The headline of the text I’ve read is “Types of Software”. It is devoted to the significance of programs for a computer.

2. The text I’ve read is headlined “Types of Software”. It deals with the application of software.

3. The text I’ve read is headlined “Types of Software”. It informs the reader on the software and its two types, that is system software and application software.

4. The text headlined “Types of Software” is concerned with software and its main types, that is system software, application software and communication software.

5. The text headlined “Types of Software” touches upon the problem of software development.

4. Finish up the sentences

1. The author starts with the definition of software. He defines it as follows: …

2. He also points out some important functions of computer programs. In particular, he says that … .

3. Then the author classifies the types of software. According to this classification … .

4. Then he defines these types of software: … .

5. Give rendering of the text.

UNIT 14

СОГЛАСОВАНИЕ ВРЕМЕН

(THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES)

Согласование времен – это определенная зависимость времени глагола в придаточном предложении от времени глагола в главном предложении. Если глагол в главном предложении выражен в одной из форм прошедшего времени, то прошедшее время (или будущее в прошедшем) должно быть использовано в придаточном предложении.

ПРАВИЛА СОГЛАСОВАНИЯ ВРЕМЕН

(RULES OF THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES)

RULE	EXAMPLES
1. Для выражения действия одновременного с действием в главном предложении употребляется прошедшее неопределенное время (the Past Indefinite) или прошедшее продолженное время (the Past Continuous).	Nobody knew what he meant. Никто не знал, что он имеет в виду. He had never guessed what she was doing. Он никогда не догадывался, что она делает.
2. Для выражения действия предшествующего действию в главном предложении употребляется прошедшее совершенное время (the Past Perfect).	I knew that he had passed his exams successfully. Я знал, что он сдал экзамены успешно.
3. Для выражения действия, которое последует за действием в главном предложении, употребляется особое время, которое называется будущее в прошедшем (Future in the Past). Оно образуется с помощью вспомогате-льных глаголов would/ should для первого лица единственного и множественного числа и would для всех остальных лиц.	He knew that she would take part in the conference. Он знал, что она примет участие в конференции.

Правило согласования времен не соблюдается, если в придаточном предложении выражается общепризнанная истина:

The students knew that water consists of oxygen and hydrogen.

Согласование времен также не соблюдается, если в придаточном предложении выражено обычное, привычное или характерное действие:

He asked the guard what time the train usually starts.

КОСВЕННАЯ РЕЧЬ

(INDIRECT SPEECH)

КОСВЕННЫЕ

УТВЕРЖДЕНИЯ

(INDIRECT STATEMENTS)

RULE

EXAMPLES

При переводе в косвенную речь утвердительных и отрицательных предложений используется that, который может опускаться. Косвенные утверждения вводятся глаголами to say, to tell, to announce, to inform, to promise, to remark и др. С глаголами to tell и to inform указы-вается лицо, к которому адресовано действие. С глаголами to say и to announce лицо может не упоминать-ся. Глагол to say используется для введения как прямой, как и косвенной речи. Глагол to tell используется только в косвенной речи.

She said to us, “I am going to buy a new computer.” She said (told us) that she was going to buy a new computer. He said to them, “You’ll have a test tomorrow”. He informed them that they would have a test.

Если глагол в главном предложении стоит в прошедшем времени, то при переводе в косвенную речь время в придаточном предложении изменяется по правилам согласования времен.

При переводе в косвенную речь прошедшее продолженное время (the Past Continuous) и прошедшее совершенное время (the Past Perfect) не изменяются:

She said, “I was writing a report at 5 p.m.”.

She said she was writing a report at 5 p.m.

She said, “We had written the test by 5 o’clock”.

She said that they had written the test by 5 o’clock.

Если прошедшее неопределенное время (the Past Indefinite) в прямой речи обозначает действие, произошедшее в определенный момент, то в косвенной речи это время не изменяется:

He said, ”Her friend graduated from the University in 1999”.

He said that her friend graduated from the University in 1999.

Must не изменяется в косвенной речи, если выражает предположение или совет, граничащий с приказом:

She said to him, “You must be more careful” (совет).

She told him he must be more careful.

She said, “You must be very fond of mathematics if you buy a lot of

books (предположение).

She said he must be very fond of mathematics if he bought a lot of

books.

Must заменяется на had to в косвенной речи, если выражает необходимость совершения действия, обусловленную обстоятельствами.

She said, “I must get up early every morning”.

She said she had to get up early every morning.

Must заменяется на was to в косвенной речи, если в прямой речи выражает предварительную согласованность, запланированность действия.

She said, “I must ring him up at 2 o’clock”.

She said she was to ring him up at 2 o’clock.

КОСВЕННЫЕ ПРОСЬБЫ И ПРИКАЗЫ

(INDIRECT REQUESTS AND ORDERS)

RULE	EXAMPLES
Просьба или приказы вводятся в косвенную речь с помощью глаголов to ask, to order, to tell и передаются при помощи инфинитива смыслового глагола.	She said to him, “Open the window.” She told him to open the window.

КОСВЕННЫЕ ВОПРОСЫ

(INDIRECT QUESTIONS)

RULE

EXAMPLES

Косвенные вопросы вводятся с помощью глагола to ask. При переводе в косвенную речь общих вопросов используются союзы if или whether. При переводе в косвенную речь специальных вопросов используется вопросительное слово специального вопроса. В вопросах в косвенной речи соблюдается прямой порядок слов, однако если прямой вопрос к подле-жащему содержит глагол to be, то прямой порядок слов в косвенном вопросе не всегда соблюдается:

He asked me, “Did you send her e-mail?” He asked me if (whether) I had sent her e-mail. He asked me, “How long does it take to do this work?” He asked me how long it took to do this work. He asked, “Who is that man?” He asked who the man was. He asked who was the man.

EXERCISES

1. Translate into Russian.

1. He says that he lives in London. 2. He says that he lived in London. 3. He said that he lived in London. 4. He said that he had lived in London. 5. He said that he would live in London. 6. He said that she might live in London. 7. He said that she might have lived in London. 8. He says that he is leaving for London. 9. He said that he was leaving for London. 10. I am sure that he always keeps his promise. 11. I am sure that he will keep his promise.12. I was sure that he would keep his promise. 13. I am sure that he must keep his promise. 14. I was sure that he had to keep his promise. 15. I am sure that he can keep his promise. 16. I was sure that he could keep his promise. 17. Were you sure that he had kept his promise? 18. He said that she might keep her promise. 19. He said that she might have kept her promise. 20. He says that she may keep her promise. 21. He says that she may have kept her promise.

2. Change the main clause to the past and make necessary changes in the subordinate clause.

1. He says that he will finish the project in May. 2. He says that he must finish the project in May. 3. He says that he can finish the project in May. 4. He says that he finished the project in May. 5. He thinks she is going to win the award. 6. I hear that your friend has accepted a proposal. 7. The student is asking the professor when the class will have a test. 8. The professor says that we must look through the whole article. 9. Mary says that he may be at the lecture. 10. Mary says that he may have been at the lecture. 11. He says that he is busy. 12. He says that he was busy. 13. He thinks that the article will be much spoken about. 14. He says that the article is much spoken about. 16. He says that the article was much spoken about. 17. He says that the article is still being much spoken about.

3. Practice the following according to the pattern.

Pattern: He studies mathematics.

What did he (she) say?

He (She) said that he studied mathematics.

1. I hope to pass the examination. 2. We are looked at. 3. I have never been to Great Britain. 4. I made no mistakes in the last test. 5. I haven’t read many English books. 6. I didn’t send e-mail. 7. My friend is good at mathematics. 8. I don’t feel tired. 9. My friend is a brilliant student. 10. I haven’t seen her for a long time. 11. My friend goes to bed early. 12. I shall read for my credit-test in English. 13. I’ll be present at the lecture. 14. I’ll make notes of the lecture. 15. I am never late for the classes. 16. I must go now. 17. You may stay if you like. 18. I can’t hear what the lecturer is saying. 19. You must be more attentive at the lesson. 20. Don’t interrupt me. 21. Don’t be late. 22. Give me your dictionary, please.

4. Practice the following according to the pattern.

Pattern: Where do you live?

What did he (she) ask?

He (She) asked where you lived.

1. What’s the time? 2. Do you speak English? 3. How old are you? 4. Are you a first-year student? 5. Have you passed your exams? 6. How much time does it take you to get to the University? 7. What are you doing? 8. Who discovered the X-rays? 9. Do you come to the University on foot? 10. Where are you going to spend your holidays? 11. Have you got a computer? 12. Who invented the computer? 13. Where have you been? 14. How many months does the term last? 15. What place are you from? 16. Did you come in time? 7. What are your parents? 8. Can you compile programs? 9. Are you tired? 10. Have you attended the yesterday’s lecture? 11. Why did you miss the lecture? 12. Are you busy?

TEXT

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

The instructions must be written according to a set of rules. These rules are the foundation of a programming language. A programming language must convey the logical steps of the program plan in such a way that the control unit of the CPU can interpret and follow the instructions.

There are a lot of programming languages. The most common of them are COBOL, FORTRAN, PL/I, RPG, BASIC, PASCAL.

COBOL was the most widely used business-oriented programming language. Its name is an acronym for Common Business-Oriented Language. It was designed to solve problems that are oriented toward data handling and input-output operations. COBOL can perform arithmetic operations as well, but its greatest flexibility is data handling. COBOL was also designed as a self-documenting language. Self-documenting languages are those that do not require a great deal of explanation in order to be understood by someone reading the program instructions. The self-documenting aspect of COBOL is made possible by its sentencelike structure and maximum symbolic field-name length of 30 characters. With a field-name length to 30 characters, the name can clearly identify the field and its purpose.

The FORTRAN IV language is oriented toward solving problems of mathematical nature. The name FORTRAN comes from the combination of the words formula translation. The version of FORTRAN IV was designed as algebra-based programming language. Any formula or those mathematical relationships that can be expressed algebraically can easily be expressed as a FORTRAN instruction. FORTRAN is the most commonly used language for scientific applications.

PL/I stands for Programming Language. It was designed as a general-purpose language incorporating features similar to COBOL for data handling instructions and features similar to FORTRAN for mathematical instructions. PL/I is much more than a combination of the good features of both COBOL and FORTRAN, as it has many capabilities that are unique. Yet, although PL/I is one of the most versatile and the most powerful of the programming languages, it is not the most commonly used.

RPG II is a business-oriented language. The name stands for report program generator. RPG is considerably different from other programming languages. It is a large prewritten program. The programmer simply indicates the options within the master program that are to be used. The latest version of RPG called RPG II greatly improved the language and gave it additional capabilities. RPG has advantage over COBOL as it requires less training for a programmer.

BASIC is an acronym for beginner’s all-purpose symbolic instruction code. It was developed in Dartmouth College as an easy-to-learn programming language for students and inexperienced programmers. Its key design goal is simplicity. BASIC has become a very popular language in systems where many users share the use of a computer through terminals and it has become a universal language for personal computers.

PASCAL was invented in 1970 by Professor Niklaus Wirth of Zurich, Switzerland. It was named after the mathematician Braise Paskal, who invented one of the earliest practical calculators. PASCAL is a mathematically oriented programming language and, as such, is most commonly used in mathematics, engineering, and computer science departments of colleges and universities. PASCAL has been implemented on several different computers including microcomputers.

TASKS

1. Give Russian equivalents of the following words and word combinations, transcribe them

1. convey (v.)

2. acronym (n.)

3. design (v.)

4. flexibility(n.)

5. maximum (adj.)

6. character (n.)

7. algebraically (adv.)

8. capability (n.)

9. unique (adj.)

10. versatile (adj.)

11. option (n.)

12. advantage (n.)

13. terminal (n.)

2. Give English equivalents of:

1. набор правил

2. языки программирования

3. логические ступени (шаги)

4. план программы

5. таким образом

6. блок управления

7. интерпретировать инструкции

8. следовать инструкциям

9. язык для (программирования) экономических задач

10. решать задачи

11. обработка данных (работа с данными)

12. операции ввода-вывода

13. выполнять арифметические действия

14. требовать объяснения

15. структура, подобная предложениям

16. длина имени поля

17. идентифицировать поле и его цели

18. сочетание слов

19. язык программирования, основанный на алгебре

20. математическая связь (соотношение)

21. выражаться алгебраически

22. для научных применений

23. язык общего назначения

24. включать черты

25. подобный

26. значительно отличаться

27. основная программа

28. самая последняя версия

29. улучшить язык

30. дополнительные возможности

31. иметь преимущество над

32. легкоизучаемый язык программирования

33. непрофессиональный программист

34. основная цель

35. универсальный язык

36. математически–ориентированный язык программирования

37. как таковой

3. Read and translate the text.

4. Odd the definitions out.

1. A programming language is a set of rules that a programmer uses in compiling a program for a computer.

2. A programming language is a symbolic language invented only for mathematical operations.

3. A programming language is a language designed for specific purposes.

4. A programming language is a language conveying the logical steps of the program plan in such a way that the control unit of the CPU can interpret and follow the instructions.

5. A programming language is a language designed for the programmers to compile programs.

6. A programming language is a language used for logical steps of the program plan.

7. A programming language is a language designed mainly for input-output operations.

5. Match A and B

A

COBOL is… .

FORTRAN is… .

PL/I is… .

RPG is… .

BASIC is… .

PASCAL is… .

B

• business-oriented programming language

• machine -oriented programming language

• algebra-based programming language

• mathematically oriented programming language

• general-purpose programming language

• beginners- oriented programming language

• self-documenting programming language

• the most versatile programming language

• the most powerful programming language

• easy-to-learn programming language

• universal language for personal computers

• widely used

• not widely used

6. Continue the sentences with the detailed information on the types of programming languages.

1. At the lecture the professor told the students that COBOL… .

2. At the lecture the professor explained the students that the FORTRAN IV… .

3. At the lecture the professor also explained the students that PL/I… .

4. At the lecture the professor informed the students that RPG II… .

5. At the lecture the professor said that BASIC… .

6. At the lecture the professor remarked that PASCAL … .

UNIT 15

ИНФИНИТИВ

(THE INFINITIVE)

Инфинитив представляет собой неличную форму глагола, которой в русском языке соответствует неопределенная форма глагола.

Инфинитив используется с частицей to. Но после некоторых глаголов и словосочетаний инфинитив употребляется без частицы to: see, watch, hear, feel, make (заставлять), let, must, can/could, may/might, shall/should, will/would, would rather, would sooner, had better.

ФОРМЫ ИНФИНИТИВА

TENSE	ACTIVE	PASSIVE
Indefinite	to write	to be written
Continuous	to be writing	----
Perfect	to have written	to have been written

КОНСТРУКЦИИ С ИНФИНИТИВОМ

1. Объектный падеж с инфинитивом / сложное дополнение (The Objective Infinitive Construction)

RULE	TRANSLATION	EXAMPLES
В этой конструкции инфинитив находится в связи с существитель-ным в общем падеже или местоимением в объектном падеже. Конструкция имеет функцию сложного до-полнения. Используется с глаголами see, hear, feel, find, watch, observe, consider, believe, know, suppose, think, expect, want, wish, mean, intend, like, dislike, love, hate, allow, order, make (заставлять) и др.	Переводится, как прави-ло, с помощью допол-нительного придаточ-ного предложения.	I haven’t heard her study at the University. Я не слышал, что она учится в университете. I want you to prepare for the test well. Я хочу, чтобы вы хорошо подготовились к тесту.

2. Именительный падеж с инфинитивом / Сложное подлежащее (The Subjective Infinitive Construction / the Nominative-with-the-Infinitive Construction)

RULE	TRANSLATION	EXAMPLES
В этой конструкции инфинитив находится в связи с подлежащим, которое может быть выражено существи-тельным в общем паде-же или местоимением в именительном падеже. Конструкция имеет фун-кцию сложного подле-жащего. Используется с глаголами see, hear, feel, find, watch, consider, believe, know, think, suppose, expect, say, report, make (застав-лять), seem, happen, prove, turn out и др. Также используется с выражениями to be likely, to be sure, to be certain.	Переводится, как прави-ло, сложноподчиненным предложением, главное предложение которого – неопределенно-личное предложение, такое как: говорят, сообщают, считают, известно и т.д.; придаточное пред-ложение вводится сою-зом что.	They were heard to be discussing something. Слышно было, что они что-то обсуждают. The experiment proved to be a failure. Эксперимент оказался неудачным. She seemed to have made a decision. Кажется, что она приняла решение. She is likely to participate in the conference. Похоже, она собирается принимать участие в конференции. He is sure to get an excellent mark. Он несомненно получит отличную оценку.

3. Инфинитивный оборот с предлогом for (The for-to-Infinitive Construction)

RULE	TRANSLATION	EXAMPLES
В этой конструкции инфинитиву пред-шествует существи-тельное или место-имение с предлогом for.	Переводится: 1) сложноподчинен-ным предложением, с союзами что, что-бы, когда; 2) неопределенной формой глагола; 3) существительным в дательном падеже + неопределенная форма глагола.	He waited for her to speak. Он ждал, когда она заговорит. The article was too difficult for him to understand. Статья была слишком труд-ной, чтобы он мог понять ее. This is for you to decide. Вам решать. It is difficult for the students to write it. Студентам трудно это написать.

ФУНКЦИИ ИНФИНИТИВА

FUNCTION	EXAMPLES
1. Подлежащее	To acquire knowledge is my first duty. Приобретать знания – это мой первый долг.
2. Часть сказуемого	My first duty is to acquire knowledge. Мой первый долг – приобрести знания. We must read scientific articles. Мы должны читать научные статьи.
3. Дополнение	I learned to solve arithmetic problems at school. Я научился решать арифметические задачки в школе.
4. Часть сложного дополнения	We expect him to pass his exams successfully. Мы ожидаем, что он сдаст экзамены успешно.
5. Определение	Here is an interesting article to read. Вот статья, которую интересно прочитать.
6. Обстоятельство цели	Laws were not made to be broken. Законы были созданы не для того, чтобы их нарушать. In order to pass exams successfully I have to study much. Для того чтобы сдать успешно экзамены, нужно много заниматься.
7. Обстоятельство следствия или результата	She was nervous as if not ready to answer the question. Она нервничала, как будто не была готова ответить на вопрос. This idea was too difficult to understand it. Эта идея была слишком сложна, чтобы ее понять.
8. Вводная часть предложения	To tell the truth, I was not sure. По правде говоря, я не был уверен.

EXERCISES

1. Translate into Russian paying attention to the tense and voice distinctions of the infinitives.

1. I am glad to get this book. 2. I am glad to have got this book. 3. I am glad to be given this book. 4. I am glad to have been given this book. 5. I was glad to have been given this book. 6. These books must be returned to the library today. 7. The student must be listening to the lecture now. 8. We were happy to have been helped with this work. 9. I am sorry to have done it. 10. I dislike you to be reading like that. 11. You may continue to read. 12. He may be working at his English now. 13. We were too tired to continue solving the problem. 14. The book is likely to be published soon. 15. The student was clever enough to solve any mathematical problem. 16. The professor allowed the problem to be solved at home.

2. Insert to where necessary.

1. I'm sorry (disappoint) you, but I can’t (let) you (continue) your experiment in this laboratory. 2. He refused (accept) my help. 3. I’m afraid you won’t be able (do) it yourself. 4. You ought (go) now. 5. I’d rather (begin) to prepare for the test. 6. I’ll be delighted (discuss) it with you. 7. There is nothing (do) but wait for the results of the discussion. 8. You’d better (consult) your supervisor. 9. The professor made the student (think) over the problem again. 10. You must (prepare) for your exams in advance. 11. I am happy (hear) the result of the test having been done at the previous lesson. 12. You may (use) a dictionary. 13. You are (use) a dictionary. 14. I am used (get up) early in order not (be) late for my classes.

3. Point out the Objective–with-the-Infinitive Construction. Translate the sentences into Russian.

1. They wish the article to be published next month. 2. I know him to have been a brilliant student. 3. We know the report to have consisted of two parts. 4. We found them to be interested in the computers. 5. He expected them to come to the same decision. 6. The scientist noticed the temperature to be falling very quickly. 5. We consider Shannon to be a founder of information theory. 7. We expect this equation to have the same solution as the preceding one. 6. He watched the student prove the theorem. 7. Under these circumstances we expect the variables to be negative. 8. We found some programming languages to be used for specific purposes.

4. Point out the Subjective Infinitive Construction. Translate the sentences into Russian.

1. English is considered to belong to a branch of German languages. 2. The future is expected to bring a great many new applications of semiconductors. 3. This approach seems to satisfy the scientist. 4. Lobachevsky is known to have written much on the problems of education. 5. This new device is told to work well. 6. They are known to have made a lot of discoveries. 7. These methods seem to be quite independent of one another. 8. The computer is likely to be repaired. 9. This method is certain to be used. 10. The conference is believed to be interesting.

5. Translate into Russian.

1. It is difficult for me to think of anything else at the moment. 2. There’s nobody for me to discuss this problem. 3. There were plenty of papers for him to read. 4. It is pleasant for me to work in the computer class. 5. There is nothing for me to read.

6. It was important for him to learn programming.

6. Translate into Russian paying attention to the different functions of the infinitives which stand at the beginning of the sentences

1. To make a choice of these two alternatives is not an easy question. 2. To be on the safe side, take special care of the accuracy of the calculations. 3. To argue about it is not fruitful at the moment. 4. To establish relationship between these two phenomena, extensive research is needed. 5. To sum up, these problems are studied for the possibilities which they hold for practical applications. 6. To put in another way, the experimental procedure must suite the purpose of the experiment. 7. To be able to forecast the future, we must begin by a thorough analysis of the past course of events. 8. To foresee the future means to analyze the past experience.9. To tell the truth, the results have no direct bearing on the problem under discussion.

7. State the functions of the Infinitive. Translate the sentences into Russian.

1. To carry out this complicated research work requires special knowledge and training. 2. The computer to be built will be powerful. 3. It is too late to change anything in this work. 4. The engineer wants a new device to be tested in the laboratory. 5. Men of science consider Lobachevsky to be the “Copernicus of Geometry”. 6. To work in the computer class is pleasant. 7. She has learned to solve such problems. 8. In order to learn to solve such problems you need to read this piece of theory. 9. These magazines must be returned to the library. 10. He may be working in the laboratory now. 11. They were glad to have been informed about it. 12. They came to the laboratory to obtain the data they needed. 13. This problem is certain to be solved soon. 14. We suppose the parts of the machine to have been replaced. 15. He was the first to pass the examination in mathematical analysis. 16. To read such books means to waste time. 17. To read such books you need to have a very wide outlook. 18. He is said to be a brilliant mathematician. 19. They wanted this design to be completed as soon as possible. 20. Both theories appear to be important in our research. 21. These theories are to be used. 22. The theories to be used must be up-to-date. 23. The theories to have been used were up-to-date. 24. It gave an opportunity to obtain reliable results.

8. Translate into English the text under the letter A, then – under the letter B.

A

Провайдеры услуг Интернета (Internet service providers=ISPs) обеспечивают доступ клиентам (customers) в Интернет за ежемесячную плату (for a monthly fee).

Клиент, который подписывается на ISP’s обслуживание (subscribes to an ISP’s service), использует сеть ISP, чтобы получить доступ в Интернет. Поскольку ISPs предлагают свои услуги широкой аудитории (offer their services to the general public), сети называют сетями открытого доступа (are referred to as public access networks).

В Соединенных Штатах, как и во многих странах, ISPs – это частные компании (private companies). В странах, где телефонное обслуживание является монополией, регулируемой правительством (government-regulated monopoly), правительство часто управляет ISPs.

Организация, которая имеет много компьютеров, обычно имеет локальную сеть (local network), называемую интранетом, которая соединяет (connects) все компьютеры в пределах организации (within the organization). Чтобы обеспечить интернет-обслуживание (In order to provide the Internet service), организация соединяет интранет с Интернетом. Для того чтобы обеспечить безопасность (security), доступ в интранет, в отличие от сетей открытого доступа (unlike public access networks), ограничен (is restricted). Только разрешенные (authorized) компанией компьютеры могут соединяться с интранетом. Организация также ограничивает коммуникацию между интранетом и глобальным Интернетом. Ограничения позволяют компьютерам организации обмениваться информацией (to exchange information), но держать информацию конфиденциальной и защищенной от посторонних (keep the information confidential and protected from outsiders).

B

Провайдеры услуг Интернета обеспечивают доступ клиентам в Интернет за ежемесячную плату.

Клиент, который подписывается на ISP’s обслуживание, использует сеть ISP, чтобы получить доступ в Интернет. Поскольку ISPs предлагают свои услуги широкой аудитории, сети называют сетями открытого доступа.

В Соединенных Штатах, как и во многих странах, ISPs – это частные компании. В странах, где телефонное обслуживание является монополией, регулируемой правительством, правительство часто управляет ISPs.

Организация, которая имеет много компьютеров, обычно имеет локальную сеть, называемую интранетом, которая соединяет все компьютеры в пределах организации. Чтобы обеспечить интернет-обслуживание, организация соединяет интранет с Интернетом. Для того чтобы обеспечить безопасность, доступ в интранет, в отличие от сетей открытого доступа, ограничен. Только разрешенные компанией компьютеры могут соединяться с интранетом. Организация также ограничивает коммуникацию между интранетом и глобальным Интернетом. Ограничения позволяют компьютерам организации обмениваться информацией, но держать информацию конфиденциальной и защищенной от посторонних.

TEXT 1

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE INTERNET

In 1957, the US government established the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), a segment of the Department of Defense charged with ensuring US leadership in science and technology with military applications. In 1969, ARPA created ARPANET, the forerunner of the Internet. ARPANET was a network that connected major computers at the University of California at Los Angeles, the University of California at Santa Barbara, Stanford Research Institute, and the University of Utah. Within a couple of years, several other educational and research institutions formed the network. In response to the threat of nuclear attack, ARPANET was designed to allow continued communication if one or more sites were destroyed. Unlike today, when millions of people have access to the Internet from home, or work, ARPANET joined only computer professionals, engineers, and scientists.

Throughout the 1970s, developers created the protocols used to transfer information over the Internet. By the early 1980s, usenet newsgroups and electronic mail had been born. At that time libraries began to connect their catalogs to the Internet, too. During the late 1980s, developers created indices, such as Archie and the Wide Area Information Server (WAIS), to keep track of the information on the Internet. To give users a friendly, easy-to-use interface to work with, the University of Minnesota created its Gopher, a simple menu system for accessing files, in 1991.

The World Wide Web came into being in 1991, thanks to the developer Tim Berners-Lee and others at the European Laboratory of Particle Physics, also known CERN. The CERN team created the protocol based on hypertext that makes it possible to connect on the Web with hyperlinks. In June 1993, the Web served just 130 sites. By a year later, the number had risen to nearly 3 000. In April 1998, there were more than 2.2 million sites on the Web.

TASKS

1. Mind the meaning of some abbreviations:

ARPA (The Advanced Research Projects Agency) –Агентство по передовым исследовательским проектам (министерства обороны США).

ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency NETwork) – сеть Агентства по передовым исследовательским проектам (министерства обороны США).

WAIS (The Wide Area Information Server) – информационный сервер региональной сети.

2. Transcribe the following words

California

Los Angeles

Santa Barbara

Utah

Minnesota

3. State the functions of the Infinitive in the following sentences. Translate the sentences.

1. In response to the threat of nuclear attack, ARPANET was designed to allow continued communication if one or more sites were destroyed.

2. Throughout the 1970s, developers created the protocols used to transfer information over the Internet.

3. At that time libraries began to connect their catalogs to the Internet, too.

4. During the late 1980s, developers created indices, such as Archie and the Wide Area Information Server (WAIS), to keep track of the information on the Internet.

5. To give users a friendly, easy- to- use interface to work with, the University of Minnesota created its Gopher, a simple menu system for accessing files, in 1991.

6. The CERN team created the protocol based on hypertext that makes it possible to connect on the Web with hyperlinks.

4. Read and translate the text

5. Define the following:

1. ARPANET

2. The Internet

3. The World Wide Web

4. A hypertext

6. Which statement deals with the content of the whole text?

1. The headline of the text I’ve read is «A Brief History of the Internet». It deals with the Internet creation.

2. The text I’ve read is headlined «A Brief History of the Internet». It is concerned with the structure of the Internet.

3. The text under consideration touches upon the problem of the Internet’s further development.

4. The headline of the text I’ve read is «A Brief History of the Internet». It reports on the development of the Internet.

5. The text I’ve read is headlined «A Brief History of the Internet». It is devoted to the birth and development of the Internet and WWW and the influence of the Internet on the mankind.

7. Develop the statement: The author starts with the events concerning the birth of the Internet.

8. Finish up the statement putting the events chronologically.

Statement: The development of the net as the author writes comprises the following important events: … .

Events:

• the connection of libraries’ catalogs to the Internet which began in the early 1980s;

• the invention of the protocol based on hypertext by Tim Berners-Lee and others at the European Laboratory of Particle Physics in 1991;

• further connection of educational and research institutions to the net;

• the birth of the usenet newsgroups and electronic mail by the early 1980s;

• the invention of Gopher, a simple menu system for accessing files (the University of Minnesota, in 1991);

• the creation of the protocols able to transfer information over the Internet in 1970s;

• the creation of indices, such as Archie and the Wide Area Information Server (WAIS) which could keep track of the information on the Internet (during the late 1980s);

9. Here is the end of the rendering of the text «A Brief History of the Internet». Write the beginning.

In order to show the advances in the development of the Internet the author uses comparison. He compares the number of sites: in June 1993, the Web served only 130 sites but a year later the number of sites was nearly 3 000, in April 1998, there were more than 2.2 million sites on the Web. He also compares such facts: ARPANET joined only computer professionals, engineers, and scientists but today millions of people have access to the Internet from home, or work. The growing number of sites on the Web and the number of people having access to the Internet are good evidences of the Internet’s influence on the mankind.

In conclusion I’d like to express my own attitude to the text I’ve read. It is worth reading as it contains a lot of information concerning the history of the Internet.