Part 1. Theoretical grammar as a branch of linguistics

Lecture 1.1. What TG is About? The Subject of Studies

Lecture 1.2. How Do We Study TG? Basic Notions and Methodology

Part 2. Morphology

Lecture 2.1. A Look Inside the Word: its Morphemic Structure

Lecture 2.2. The Core of Grammatical Tradition: Parts of Speech

Lecture 2.3. Notional Parts of speech: Meet the Noun

Lecture 2.4. Notional Parts of speech: Meet the Verb (1)

Lecture 2.5. Notional Parts of speech: Meet the Verb (2)

Lecture 2.6. Notional Words of Property: the Adjective and the Adverb

Lecture 2.7. Notional Parts of speech: the Numeral, & the Pronoun

Lecture 2.8. Functional Parts of Speech: Prepositions and Conjunctions

Part 3. Syntax

Lecture 3.1. Major Syntactic Notions and Theories.

Lecture 3.2. Sentence: Semantic, Structural and Pragmatic Aspects

Lecture 3.3. Utterance and its Informative Structure

Plan:

§1. Aims and Objectives of the Course.

§2. Grammar as a Part of the Language

System.

§3. Morphology and Syntax – Separate

Grammar Branches? (State Exam Issue)

§4. Grammatical Structure of a Language

Aims and Objectives of the Course (1)

Homo sapiens – “man with wisdom”

“Man the tool maker”

Homo loquens – “man the speaking animal”

Homo grammaticus

Grammar ← Greek ‘grammatike’ – “art of writing”

Greek ‘gramma’ – “a letter”

practical theoretical

Aims and Objectives of the Course (2)

Practical Grammar aims to describe grammar rules that are necessary to understand and make sentences.

Theoretical Grammar explains these rules.

Course of TG aims to provide students with a solid foundation in the description and analysis of the grammatical system of English, which constitutes one of the fundamental professional language competences.

Aims and Objectives of the Course (3)

Drawbacks of Practical Grammar for a Professional User:

The noun which denotes an object “already known” by the listener should be used with the definite article.

“I've just read a book of yours about Spain and I wanted to ask you about it.” – “It's not a very good book, I'm afraid” (S. Maugham).

The continuous tense-forms cannot be used with link verbs, verbs of the category of state.

1)My holiday at Crome isn't being a disappointment (A. Huxley).

2)For the first time, Bobby felt, he was really seeing the man (A. Christie).

Aims and Objectives of the Course (4)

At the end of the course the learner is expected to KNOW:

basic structural and semantic principles of the English grammatical system as a whole and historically most prominent approaches to its description;

parts of speech characteristics and their grammatical categories;

rules of combining words into word-groups;

the system of simple and composite sentences;

diversity of syntactic theories, including Actual Division and Speech Act Theories;

basics of text producing and text/discourse analysis.

Aims and Objectives of the Course (5)

At the end of the course the learner is expected to BE ABLE TO:

identify, define and scientifically analyze various grammatical phenomena (grammatical categories, rules of utterance and text formation, structural types of sentences, etc.) in real texts and use results of such analysis in professional language activities;

use terminology of TG in such description and analysis;

compare grammatical structures of English and Russian and make practical use of such comparison in translating/interpreting;

use special literature to acquire knowledge in TG required for practical purposes;

use methods of TG to study real texts.

Aims and Objectives of the Course (6)

Practical Value of TG for a Translator:

(from Regulations for management of a company limited by shares, UK, 1985)

Subject to any rights or restrictions attached to any shares, on a show of hands every member who (being an individual) is present in person or (being a corporation) is present by a duly authorized representative, not being himself a member entitled to vote, shall have one vote and on a poll every member shall have one vote for every share of which he is the holder.

Grammar as Part of Language System (1)

Language is a multifaceted, complex phenomenon.

Language is a semiotic system = a system of signs.

A system is a structured set of elements united by a common function.

Система – множество элементов, находящихся в отношениях и связях друг с другом, которое образует определенную целостность, единство (БСЭ).

Grammar as Part of Language System (2)

A systemic approach to language

Ferdinand de Saussure: LANGUAGE

langue parole

(language proper) (speech proper)

a set of lingual units and the rules of their use the act of producing utterances and its result

Analogy: a set of rules how to play chess

and a definite game of chess

Grammar as Part of Language System (3)

Language’s Basic Subsystems:

Phonetical system includes the material units of which language is made up – sounds, phonemes, different intonation models, and accent models (studied by phonology).

Lexical system is the whole set of naming means of language – words and stable word-combinations (studied by lexicology).

Grammatical system includes the rules and regularities of using lingual units in the construction of utterances in the process of human communication (studied by grammar).

Grammar as Part of Language System (4)

Language is a system of means of expression (the system of signs).

Speech is the manifestation of the system of language in the process of intercourse (the use of signs).

Grammar dynamically connects language with speech, because it determines the lingual process of utterance production

Grammar as part of Language System (5)

Grammar is

1)the field of linguistics that covers the rules governing the use of any given natural language

(Ø English grammar)

2)the structure (i.e. the rules) of the language itself

(the English grammar)

3)a book describing the structure of the language

(an English grammar)

Grammar is 1) more abstract and systematic and due to that 2) the most stable language subsystem.

Grammar as part of Language System (6)

Object of TG is the grammatical structure of language, i.e. the system of the rules of word-changing and sentence-building.

TG is the branch of linguistics, which studies forms of words and their relations in sentences in an abstract way.

To separate grammar from other language subsystems

is absolutely impossible

HANDS !

1.the terminal part of the human arm

2.thingness (categorial meaning)

3. plurality (morphological meaning)

Morphology and Syntax (1)

A grammatical structure of the language is the whole complex of linguistic means used in grouping words into utterances:

1)Grammatical word classes and their grammatical categories – notional and functional parts of speech.

2)Sentence structure – primary and secondary parts of sentence.

In connection with this grammar is divided into two parts: morphology and syntax.

Morphology and Syntax (2)

Morphology is the field of linguistics that studies the internal structure and grammatical forms of words.

Morphology studies words in two aspects:

1) word-building (describes words in such terms as “root”, “prefix’, “stem”, etc.),

2) word-changing (in terms of “forms”).

IN-COMPREHENS-IBLE

(prefix + root + suffix) – word-building

more incomprehensible

the most incomprehensible word-changing

Морфология и Синтаксис (2) Морфология области лингвистики, что исследования внутренней структуры и грамматических форм слова. Морфология исследований слова в двух аспектах: 1) слово-здание (описывается словами в таких терминах, как “root”, “префикс", “СТЭМ”и др.), 2) слово-изменение (в терминах “формы”). В-ИСПОЛНЯЕТ ВСЕСТОРОННИЙ-IBLE (префикс + корень + суффикс) - словообразование более непонятно самое непонятное слово-изменение

Morphology and Syntax (3)

Syntax (from Greek “together”, “arrangement”) is the study of the principles and rules for constructing sentences in natural languages, also the set of rules and principles that govern the sentence structure of any individual language.

In recent years a close studying of such linguistic object as a text resulted in appearance of a third grammar branch – grammar of text which studies means of cohesion between sentences, regularities of sentence-structuring depending on the linguistic context, issues of text typology and others.

Морфология и Синтаксис (3) Синтаксис (от греческого “вместе”, “организация”) является изучение принципов и правил построения предложений в естественных языках, а также набор правил и принципов, которые регулируют структуру предложения для любого отдельного языка. В последние годы тесные изучению такого лингвистического объекта в виде текстового привело к появлению третьего грамматики филиал - грамматики текста, который изучает средства сплоченности между предложениями, закономерности приговор-структурирование в зависимости от языковой контекст, вопросы текст типология и другие.

Morphology and Syntax (4)

МОРФОЛОГИЯ (от греч. “учение о форме”), раздел лингвистики, основным объектом которого являются слова естественных языков и их значимые части – морфемы. В задачи морфологии входит определение слова как особого языкового объекта и описание его внутренней структуры. Морфология описывает не только формальные свойства слов и образующих их морфем (звуковой состав, порядок следования и т.п. – предмет морфемики), но и те грамматические значения, которые выражаются внутри слова (или «морфологические значения») – предмет грамматической семантики.

СИНТАКСИС (от греч. “строй, порядок”), в традиционном понимании совокупность грамматических правил языка, относящихся к построению единиц, более протяженных, чем слово: словосочетанию и предложению.

Morphology and Syntax (5)

Morphology & Syntax –SEPARATE branches of Grammar ???

The teacher explained the grammar rule to me.

1)is connected with “teacher” (the doer of the action) and with “grammar rule” (the object of the action); SYNTAX

2)is associated with the forms “explains, was explaining, has explained, will explain, etc.”; MORPHOLOGY

Morphology and Syntax (additional)

According to a modern view we distinguish between two angles of research:

1)The elements dealt with morphology and syntax.

2)How these elements are studied paradigmatic and syntagmatic study.

So we get four divisions:

1. a) paradigmatic morphology. b) syntagmatic morphology.

2. a) paradigmatic syntax. b) syntagmatic syntax.

Morphology and Syntax (additional)

1. Paradigmatic morphology = morphology

2. Syntagmatic syntax = syntax.

3. Syntagmatic morphology is the study of phrases:

“substantive + substantive”; “adjective + substantive”; “verb + substantive”; “verb + adverb”, etc.

4. Paradigmatic syntax is the study of sentence forms:

Woggles ugged diggles.

Did woggles ugg diggles?

Woggles did not ugg diggles.

Will woggles ugg diggles?

Woggles will ugg diggles.

Grammatical Structure of a Language (1)

The grammatical structure of language is a system of means used to turn linguistic units into communicative ones, in other words – the units of language into the units of speech:

word order – is the linear or time sequence in which words appear in an utterance;

inflections – are morphemic changes which adopt words to perform certain grammatical function without changing their lexical meanings;

function words – are words largely devoid of lexical meaning which are used to indicate various functional relationships among the lexical words of an utterance;

prosody – is the over-all musical pattern of stress, pitch, juncture in which the words of an utterance are spoken.

Грамматическая Структура Языка (1) Грамматический строй языка-это система средств, используемых в свою очередь языковыми единицами в коммуникативных те, иными словами - единиц единиц языка в речи: порядок слов - это линейное время или последовательность, в которой слова появляются в высказывания; интонаций - морфемный изменения, которые принимают слова, чтобы выполнить определенные грамматические функции, не меняя их лексическое значения; функция слова - слова, во многом лишена лексического значения, которые используются для обозначения различных функциональных связей между лексическими слова, высказывания; стихосложения - это всего музыкального рисунка стресса, поле, чрезвычайная ситуация, в которой слова, высказывания говорят.

Grammatical Structure of a Language (2)

1818 –August von Schlegel

Typological Classification of languages

1.SYNTHETIC (FLECTIONAL) 2.ANALYTICAL (ISOLATING) 3.AGGLUTINATING (АГГЛЮТИНАТИВНЫЕ)4.POLYSYNTHETIC (INCORPORATING)

5.FUSIONAL (ФУЗИОННЫЕ)

Grammatical Structure of a Language (3) Analytical (isolating) languages

each word consists of a single morpheme

no use of affixes to compose words

semantic and grammatical concepts are expressed by the use of separate words

word order is used to show the functions of words

Mandarin Chinese:

[wᴐ mǝn tan tçin] – I plural play piano – We are playing the piano

[wᴐ mǝn tan tçin lǝ] – I plural play piano past – We played the piano

[ta da wᴐ mǝn] – S/he hit(s) I plural – S/he hits us.

Analytical languages are those of ”external grammar”

Grammatical Structure of a Language (4)

Synthetic languages are those of ”internal grammar”

most of grammatical meanings and grammatical relations are expressed with the help of inflexions

a word may be made up of several meaningful elements

Agglutinating languages

is easy to determine the boundaries between morphemes

each affix usually carries only one meaning

Swahili:

[ni-na-soma] – I-present-read – I am reading

[u-na-soma] – You-present-read – You are reading

[ni-li-soma] – I-past-read – I read

[u-li-soma] – You-past-read – You read

[ni-ta-soma] – I-future-read – I will read

[u-ta-soma] – You-future-read – You will read

Grammatical Structure of a Language (5)

Fusional languages

hard to tell where one morpheme ends and the next one begins

one affix more frequently conveys several meanings simultaneously

Spanish:

[ablo] – I am speaking [abla] – She is speaking [able] – I spoke

Russian: Она читает Он читал

Grammatical Structure of a Language (6) Polysynthetic (incorporating) languages

complex words may be formed by combining several stems and affixes

Sora (a language spoken in India):

[anin-ɲam-jo-te-n] – he catch fish non-past do – He is fish-catching – He is catching fish

≈ English constructions baby-sit, trout-fish, etc.

[ɲɛn-ǝdʒ-dʒa-dar-si-ǝm] – I not receive cooked rice hand you – I will not receive cooked rice from your hands.

English is a flexional-analytical language, which connects words into sentences making wide use of the order of words and functional words due to the limited number of grammatical inflexions. The primary grammatical means is the order of words.

KEY TERMS

Language

Speech

System

Structure

Grammar

Morphology

Syntax

Paradigmatics

Syntagmatics

Grammatical structure of a language

How Do We Study TG? Basic Notions and Methods

Lecture 2

§1. The Hierarchy of Lingual Units. Segmental and Suprasegmental Units.

§2. Grammatical Form, Meaning and Category.

§3. Methods of Linguistic Analysis:

§3.1. Method of Parsing;

§3.2. Oppositional Method;

§3.3. Transformational Method.

п. 1. Иерархии языковых Единиц. Сегментарный и Надсегментарные Единиц. п. 2. Грамматические Формы, Смысла и Категории. п. 3. Методы Лингвистического Анализа: пункт 3.1. Метод Анализа; п. 3.2. Оппозиционные Метод; §3.3. Метод Трансформационного.

The Hierarchy of Lingual Units (1)

The Hierarchy of Lingual Units (1)

Language is a structural system, represented by a number of strata or levels.

Language structure exists as a hierarchy of parts constituting the whole.

“Hierarchy” means that units of one level are composed of sequences of units of the level below.

The number of levels depends on how many language (or speech) units there are in a language. They single out from 4 to 7 levels.

Иерархии языковых Единиц (1) Язык является структурным системы, представленный числом слоев или уровней. Структуре языка, существует в виде иерархии частей, составляющих целое. “Иерархии” означает, что единиц одного уровня состоят из последовательности единиц уровень ниже. Количество уровней зависит от того, сколько языка (или речью) единицы, существует в языке. Они выделяют от 4 до 7 уровней.

The Hierarchy of Lingual Units (2) The most wide-spread opinion on the basic levels and their units:

phonological / phonetic level: phoneme / (allo)phone /l/ low, battle

morphological level: morpheme / (allo)morph –ed worked, phoned, wanted

lexicological level: lexeme / (allo)lex table writing table, dinner table

syntax – minor: sentence / utterance “writing a letter” John is writing a letter A letter is being written by John

syntax – major: text / discourse.

Иерархии языковых Единиц (2) Наиболее распространенного мнения о базовых уровнях и их подразделений: фонологической / фонетическом уровне: фонемы / (allo) фон /l/ low, битва морфологического уровня: морфемы / (allo)morph -Эд работал, звонил, хотел, lexicological уровне: лексемы / (allo)lex Настольный письменный стол, обеденный стол синтаксис - минор: предложение / провещевать “написать письмо” Иоанн пишет письмо Письмо пишется Джон синтаксис - мажор: текста / дискурса.