Judges in Great Britain

In Britain, the vast majority of judges (that is, the people who decide what should be done with people who commit crimes) are unpaid. They are called "Magistrates", or "Justices of the Peace" (JPs). They are ordinary citizens who are selected not because they have any legal training but because they have "sound common sense" and understand their fellow human beings. They give up time voluntarily.

A small proportion of judges are not Magistrates. They are called "High Court Judges" and they deal with the most serious crimes, such as those for which the criminal might be sent to prison for more than a year. High Court Judges, unlike Magistrates, are paid salaries by the State and have considerable legal training.

Magistrates are selected by special committees in every town and district. Nobody, not even the Magistrates themselves, knows who is on the special committee in their area. The committee tries to draw Magistrates from as wide a variety of professions and social classes as possible.

Topical Vocabulary

Judge – судья

To commit a crime – совершить преступление

Legal training – юридическая подготовка

High Court Judges – судья высшего суда

Committee – комитет, комиссия

To select – выбирать

To deal with – иметь дело (заниматься)

The System of Government. The American System of Government

The governmental systems in the United States are federal, state, county and local.

There are several basic principles which are found at all levels of American government. One of these is the "one person, one vote" principle which says that legislators are elected from geographical districts directly by the voters. Under this principle, all election districts must have about the same number of residents.

Another fundamental principle of American government is that because of the system of checks and balances, compromise in politics is a matter of necessity, not choice. For example, the House of Representatives controls spending and finance, so the President must have its agreement for his proposals and programs. He cannot declare war, either, without the approval of Congress. In foreign affairs, he is also strongly limited. Any treaty must first be approved by the Senate. If there is no approval, there's no treaty. The rule is "the President proposes, but Congress disposes." What a President wants to do, therefore, is often a different thing from what a President is able to do.

Topical Vocabulary

Government – правительство

Level – уровень

Legislator – законодатель

District – район

Resident – постоянно проживающий

System of checks and balances – принцип взаимоограничения властей

Spending – расходы

Agreement – согласие

To declare war – объявлять войну

To approve – одобрить

Approval – одобрение

Treaty – договор

To propose – предлагать

To dispose – распоряжаться

2 Тексты для индивидуального чтения для студентов экономического факультета. Market Economy.

The pillars of free enterprise—private property, the price system, market competition, and entrepreneurship—are essential to the operation and success of a market economic system. The rights to own and exchange property and to make a profit give individuals and businesses incentives to use their resources wisely. Prices provide consumers and producers with the information they need to make economic decisions. Market competition, like private proper­ty, provides incentives to use resources wisely and produce goods and services people want and will pay for.

Economists use a circular flow model to highlight basic features of a free enterprise economy. The model shows how the voluntary exchanges between households and businesses answer the what, how, and who questions and create flows of money, products, and resources. Money makes exchange of products and resources easier. Money is a medium of exchange, a store of value, and a measure of value.

Entrepreneurship is important for the growth of an economy over time. Entrepreneurship is the willingness and ability to see opportunities and to develop them into new products for the market. It also involves risk-taking and innovation as well as good management.

Most people agree on several broad economic goals. These include full employment, economic growth, price stability, economic freedom and security, equity, and efficiency.

Topical Vocabulary:

Free enterprise – свободное (частное) предпринимательство

Private property – частная собственность

Price system – система цен

Market competition – рыночная конкуренция

Entrepreneur (ship) – предприниматель (ство)

To own – владеть

To make a profit – извлекать прибыль

Consumer – потребитель, покупатель

Producer – производитель

Incentive – заинтересованность, стимул

Goods – товары

Services – услуги

Circular flow – круговой поток

Value – стоимость, цена (ценность)

Full employment – полная занятость

Equity – справедливость, собственность в бизнесе