Seminar 6 Semantic change

I. 1. Semantic change. Extralinguistic changes (change of notion, weakening of the first meaning, development of new meanings) and linguistic changes (the conflict of synonyms, ellipsis). Herman Paul. «Prinzipien des Sprachgeschichte».

2. Main ways: gradual semantic changes (specialization and generalization) and momentary conscious semantic changes (metaphor and metonymy). Secondary ways: gradual (elevation and degradation), momentary (hyperbole and litotes).

II. Exercises to Seminar 6

1. From the large number of senses and contexts for the word head DCE (Dictionary of Contemporary English, Longman) mentions over sixty. We offer a small selection here:

(a) the top part of the body which has your eyes, mouth, brain, etc.

(b) your mind: My head was full of strange thoughts.

(c) understanding: This book goes over my head.

(d) the leader or person in charge of a group: We asked the head for permission.

(e) the top or front of something: Write your name at the head of each page.

(f) calm: Keep one’s head cool.

(g) (for) each person: We paid ten pounds a head for the meal.

Explain what the processes of meaning extensions are for “head” and point out which of these meanings are metaphors and which are metonymies.

2. The following are some of the different senses of skirt(s)) as adapted from the DCE dictionary item quoted below in (a-d) and extended by further contexts (e-i):

(a) A piece of outer clothing worn by women and girls which hangs down from the waist

(b) The part of a dress or coat that hangs down from the waist

(c) The flaps on a saddle that protect a rider’s legs

(d) A circular flap as around the base of a hovercraft

(e) A bit of skirt: an offensive expression meaning ‘an attractive woman’

(f) Skirts of a forest, hill or village etc.: the outside edge of a forest etc.

(g) A new road skirting the suburb

(h) They skirted round the bus.

(i) He was skirting the issue (= avoid).

(a) (b) (e) (f)

Figure 3. Some senses of skirt

(i) What is likely to be the prototypical meaning? Point out which process of meaning extension (generalization, metaphor, metonymy, specialization) you find in each of the other cases. Give reasons for your answers.

(ii) How are the meanings in (f, g, h, i) related to the prototypical meaning? What is the difference between (f) versus (g, h, i)?

(iii) Which of these meanings would lend themselves to a classical definition? Which of them would not? Give reasons for your answers.

3. Below is a list of expressions with the word “red”. In each case, try to find a plausible motivation for the use of the word and argue whether we have more to do with a “linguistic” metaphor or metonymy or more with a conceptual metaphor or metonymy.

(a) a redhead (= someone with red hair)

(b) red herring (= something that is not important, but distracts one from things that are important)

(c) He was caught red-handed (= in the act of doing something wrong).

(d) He was beginning to see red (= he was getting very angry).

(e) This was a red-hot (= very exciting) project.

(f) red politics (= extremely left-wing, communist ideas)

4. The following are all compounds with a colour term. Using the notions of specialization, generalization, metaphor and metonymy, say which process applies in each example and try to explain how they are motivated.

(a)bluebell

(b) bluebird

(c) blue baby

(d) blueprint

(e) redroot

(f) redbreast

(g) redneck

(h) red carpet

(i) black-eyed pea

(j) blackbird

(k) Black (person)

(l) black art

5. Identify the type of semantic shift that has occurred in each case. Choose either Metaphor or Metonymy.

a. barbecue 'a rack for cooking meat over a fire' > barbecue 'a social event at which food is cooked over a fire'

b. influence 'something which has flowed in' > influence 'something which affects someone without apparent effort'

c. mouth 'the body opening through which an animal takes food' > mouth 'a person' (eg. "three mouths to feed")

d. solve 'to loosen' > solve 'to clear up something puzzling'

e. counter 'a device for counting' > counter 'a surface on which various devices can be placed'

f. mouth 'the body opening through which an animal takes food' > mouth 'an opening into a cave or canyon'

g. white shirt 'a shirt that is white in color' > white shirt 'a manager'

6. For each example, tell whether the result of the semantic shift is Narrowing, Degeneration, Widening, or Amelioration.

a. OE wif 'a woman' > Modern English wife 'a married woman'

b. nuke 'to destroy with nuclear weapons' > nuke 'to destroy in any manner'

(eg. Buffy nuked her Porsche last night.)

c. ME marshall 'groom for horses (literally 'horse slave')' > Modern English marshall 'high ranking officer'

d. OE steorfan 'to die (of any cause)' > Modern English starve 'to die from hunger'

e. Middle English vilein 'feudal serf, farmer' > Modern English villain 'a wicked or evil person'

f. OE bouchier 'one who slaughters goats' > Modern English butcher 'one who slaughters animals'

g. Middle English girle 'child' > Modern English girl 'female child'

h. lyric 'poem to be sun with a lyre' > lyric 'any poem to be sung'

i. lewd 'of the laity (i.e. non-church)' > lewd 'indecent'

j. OE mete 'any food' > Modern English meat 'animal flesh

Recommended Literature:

I.V. Arnold. The English Word. М., 1986, pp. 60–77.

G.B.Antrushina English lexicology. М., 1999, pp 147–166.

R.S.Ginzburg. A course in Modern English Lexicology.М., 1979, pp. 29–33.