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1 Articles and one, a little/a few, this, that 7

2 Use of a/an a/an is used: 7

3 Omission of a/an a/an is omitted 7

4 a/an and one 8

5 a little/a few and little/few 8

6 the (the definite article) 9

7 Omission of the 10

8 Omission of the before home, before church, hospital, prison, school etc. and before work, sea and town 10

9 this/these, that/those (demonstrative adjectives and pronouns) 11

10 Kinds and function 12

11 Gender 12

12 Plurals 12

13 Uncountable nouns (also known as non-count nouns or mass nouns) 14

14 The form of the possessive/genitive case 15

15 Use of the possessive/genitive case and of + noun 15

16 Compound nouns A Examples of these: 16

17 Kinds of adjectives 17

18 Position of adjectives: attributive and predicative use 17

19 Order of adjectives of quality 18

20 Comparison 19

21 Constructions with comparisons (see also 341) 20

22 than/as + pronoun + auxiliary 21

23 the + adjective with a plural meaning 21

24 Adjectives + one/ones and adjectives used as pronouns 21

25 many and much (adjectives and pronouns) 21

26 Adjectives + infinitives 22

27 Adjectives + infmitive/that-clause/preposition constructions 24

28 Kinds of adverbs 25

29 The formation of adverbs with ly 25

30 Adverbs and adjectives with the same form 25

31 Comparative and superlative adverb forms 26

32 far, farther/farthest and further/furthest 27

33 much, more, most 27

34 Constructions with comparisons (see also 341) 27

35 Adverbs of manner 28

35 Adverbs of manner 29

36 Adverbs of place 30

37 Adverbs of time 31

38 Adverbs of frequency 31

39 Order of adverbs and adverb phrases of manner, place and time when they occur in the same sentence 32

Expressions of manner usually precede expressions of place: 32

40 Sentence adverbs 32

41 Adverbs of degree 33

42 fairly and rather 34

43 quite 34

44 hardly, scarcely, barely 34

45 Inversion of the verb after certain adverbs 35

46 all, each, every, everyone, everybody, everything (for all and each, see also 48) 35

47 both 36

48 all/both/each + of and alternative constructions 36

49 neither, either 37

50 some, any, no and none (adjectives and pronouns) 37

51 someone, somebody, something, anyone, anybody, anything, no one, nobody, nothing 38

52 else placed after someone/anybody/nothing etc. 38

53 another, other, others with one and some A another, other, others 38

54 Interrogative adjectives and pronouns 39

55 Affirmative verb after who, whose etc. used as subjects 39

56 Examples of the use of who, whom, whose, which and what 39

57 who, whom, which and what as objects of prepositions 40

58 Uses of what 40

59 which compared with who and what 40

60 Interrogative adverbs: why, when, where, how 41

61 ever placed after who, what, where, why, when, how 41

62 Possessive adjectives and pronouns 41

63 Agreement and use of possessive adjectives 41

64 Possessive pronouns replacing possessive adjectives + nouns 42

65 Personal pronouns 42

66 The position of pronoun objects 42

67 Uses of it 43

68 you one and they as indefinite pronouns 43

69 Use of they/them/their with neither/either, someone/everyone/no one etc. 44

70 Reflexive pronouns 44

71 myself, himself, herself etc. used as emphasizing pronouns 44

72 Defining relative clauses 45

73 Relative pronouns used in defining relative clauses The forms are as follows: 45

74 Defining relative clauses: persons 45

75 a Subject 46

Either which or that, which is the more formal: 46

76 Cleft sentences: it + be + noun/pronoun + defining relative clause 46

77 A relative clause replaced by an infinitive or a participle 46

78 Non-defining relative clauses 47

79 Non-defining relative clauses: persons 47

80 Possessive: whose 48

81 Non-defining relative clauses: things 49

82 Connective relative clauses 49

83 what (relative pronoun) and which (connective relative) 50

85 whoever, whichever, whatever, whenever, wherever, however 50

86 Introduction 51

87 Alternative position of prepositions 51

88 Omission of to and for before indirect objects 51

89 Use and omission of to with verbs of communication 52

90 Time and date: at, on, by, before, in A at, on 52

91 Time: from, since, for, during A from, since and for 53

92 Time: to, till/until, after, afterwards (adverb) 54

93 Travel and movement: from, to, at, in, by, on, into, onto, off, out, out of 54

94 at, in; in, into; on, onto 55

95 above, over, under, below, beneath etc. 55

96 Prepositions used with adjectives and participles 57

97 Verbs and prepositions 58

98 Gerunds after prepositions 58

99 Prepositions/adverbs 59

100 Classes of verbs 59

101 Principal parts of the active verb 59

102 Active tenses A Form 60

103 Negatives of tenses 60

104 Interrogative for questions and requests 61

105 Negative interrogative 62

106 Auxiliaries and modal auxiliaries 62

107 Auxiliaries: forms and patterns 62

108 Auxiliaries in short answers 63

109 Agreements and disagreements with remarks 63

110 Question tags 64

Ill Comment tags 65

112 Additions to remarks 65

114 be + infinitive 66

115 be to denote existence, be + adjective 67

116 there is/are, there was/were etc. 67

117 it is and there is compared 68

119 have + object + past participle 69

120 had better + bare infinitive 69

121 have + object + present participle 70

122 have meaning 'possess' and 'suffer (from) pain/illness/disability' 70

123 have meaning 'take' (a meal), 'give' (a party) etc. 71

124 Form 71

Principal parts: do, did, done Gerund/present participle: doing 71

125 do used as an auxiliary 72

126 do used as an ordinary verb 72

do, like have, can be used as an ordinary verb. It then forms its negative and interrogative in the simple present and past with do/did: 72

128 can used for permission: forms 73

129 may and can used for permission in the present or future 73

130 could or was/were allowed to for permission in the past 74

131 Requests for permission (see also 283) 74

132 may/might for possibility 74

133 may/might + perfect infinitive 75

134 could as an alternative to may/might 75

135 can used to express possibility 76

136 can and be able: forms 76

137 can/am able, could/was able A can and be able 76

138 could + perfect infinitive 77

139 ought: forms 77

140 should: forms 78

141 ought/should compared to must and have to 78

142 ought/should with the continuous infinitive 78

143 ought/should with the perfect infinitive 78

144 must and have to: forms 79

146 need not and must not in the present and future 80

147 need not, must not and must in the present and future 80

148 need: forms 81

149 Absence of obligation: forms 81

151 must, have to and need in the interrogative 82

152 needn't + perfect infinitive 82

153 needn't have (done) compared with didn't have/ need (to do) 82

154 needn't, could and should + perfect infinitive 83

155 to need as an ordinary verb, meaning 'require' 83

156 must used for deduction 83

157 must (deduction) compared to may/might 84

158 have/had used for deduction 84

159 can't and couldn't used for negative deduction 84

160 will and should for assumption 85

161 dare 85

162 Used 86

163 used as an adjective: to be/become/get used to 86

164 Form 87

The present continuous tense is formed with the present tense of the auxiliary verb be + the present participle: 87

165 The spelling of the present participle 87

166 Uses of the present continuous tense 87

167 Other possible uses of the present continuous 88

168 Verbs not normally used in the continuous tenses 88

169 feel, look, smell and taste used in the continuous forms 89

170 see and hear used in the continuous forms 89

171 think, assume and expect used in the continuous forms 89

172 Form 90

A In the affirmative the simple present has the same form as the infinitive but adds an s for the third person singular. 90

173 The simple present used to express habitual action 90

174 Other uses of the simple present tense 90

175 Form 91

A The simple past tense in regular verbs is formed by adding ed to the infinitive: Infinitive: to work Simple past: worked 91

176 Irregular verbs: form 91

These vary considerably in their simple past form: 91

177 Use for the relation of past events 91

178 Form 92

The past continuous tense is formed by the past tense of the verb to be + the present participle: 92

179 Main uses of the past continuous tense 92

180 Other uses of the past continuous 93

181 Past continuous as an alternative to the simple past 93

182 Form and use 93

183 The present perfect used with just for a recently completed action 94

184 The present perfect used for past actions whose time is not definite 94

185 The present perfect used for actions occurring in an incomplete period 94

186 The present perfect used for an action which lasts throughout an incomplete period 95

187 The present perfect used with for and since 96

188 it is -t- period + since + past or perfect tense 96

189 Further examples of the use of the present perfect and 97

simple past 97

190 Form 97

This tense is formed by the present perfect of the verb to be + 97

the present participle: 97

191 Use 97

This tense is used for an action which began in the past and is still continuing: 97

or has only just finished: 97

192 Comparison of the present perfect simple and continuous 98

193 Some more examples of the present perfect and the present perfect continuous 98

194 Form and use 99

195 Past and past perfect tenses in time clauses 100

196 Use of the past perfect in indirect speech 101

197 Form and use 101

198 Future forms 102

199 The simple present used for the future 102

200 A note on the meaning of future with intention 102

202 The present continuous as a future form 103

203 The be going to form 104

204 The be going to form used for intention 104

205 Comparison of the use of be going to and will + infinitive to express intention 104

206 The be going to form used for prediction 105

207 The future simple 106

208 First person will and shall 106

209 Uses of the future simple 107

210 will contrasted with want/wish/would like 107

211 The future continuous tense 108

213 The future continuous used to express future without intention 108

214 The future continuous and will + infinitive compared 108

215 Examples of various future forms 109

216 The future perfect and the future perfect continuous 109

217 Subordinate clauses 110

218 The sequence of tenses 110

219 The present conditional tense 110

220 The perfect conditional tense 111

221 Conditional sentences type 1: probable 111

222 Conditional sentences type 2 112

223 Conditional sentences type 3 113

224 Special uses of will/would and should in if-clauses 113

226 if, even if, whether, unless, but for, otherwise, provided, suppose 114

227 if and in case 115

228 if only 115

229 Conditional sentences in indirect speech 115

230 Habits expressed by will, would 116

232 would for past intention 117

233 shall I/we? in requests for orders or advice, offers, 117

suggestions 117

234 shall in the second and third persons 117

shall can express 117

235 that . . . should after certain verbs 118

236 it is/was + adjective + that . . . should 118

237 Other uses of should 119

238 Form 119

239 Uses of the infinitive 119

240 The infinitive as subject 120

241 The infinitive as object or complement of the verb 120

242 Verb + how/what/when/where/which/why + infinitive 122

243 The infinitive after verb or verb + object 122

244 The infinitive after verb + object A The most important of these are: 123

245 The infinitive after verbs of knowing and thinking etc. 123

246 The bare infinitive after verbs and expressions 124

247 The infinitive represented by its to 124

248 Split infinitives 125

249 The infinitive used as a connective link 125

250 The infinitive used to replace a relative clause 125

251 The infinitive after certain nouns 126

252 The infinitive after too, enough and so ... as 126

253 Introductory or final infinitive phrases 127

254 The continuous infinitive 127

255 The perfect infinitive 128

256 The perfect infinitive continuous 128

257 Form and use 129

258 The gerund as subject 129

260 The word to 130

262 Verbs + possessive adjective/pronoun object + gerund 131

263 The verb mind 131

264 The perfect gerund (having worked, having spoken etc.) 132

265 The passive gerund 132

266 Verbs which may take either infinitive or gerund 132

267 Verbs taking infinitive or gerund without change of meaning 132

268 regret, remember, forget 133

269 agree/agree to, mean, propose 133

270 go on, stop, try, used (to) 134

271 be afraid (of), be sorry (for), be ashamed (of) 134

272 The present (or active) participle 135

273 Present participle after verbs of sensation 135

274 catch, find, leave + object + present participle 136

275 go, come, spend, waste, be busy 136

276 A present participle phrase replacing a main clause 136

277 A present participle phrase replacing a subordinate clause 136

278 The perfect participle (active) 137

279 The past participle (passive) and the perfect participle (passive) 137

280 Misrelated participles 138

281 Commands expressed by the imperative 138

282 Other ways of expressing commands 139

283 Requests with can/could/may/might I/we 139

284 Requests with could/will/would you etc. For starred forms, see К below. 140

285 Requests with might 140

286 Invitations 141

287 Advice forms 141

288 Advice with may/might as well + infinitive 141

289 Suggestions 142

290 Form 142

A The present subjunctive has exactly the same form as the infinitive; 142

291 Use of the present subjunctive 142

292 as if/as though + past subjunctive 143

293 it is time + past subjunctive (unreal past) 143

294 care and like 143

295 care, like, love, hate, prefer 144

296 would like and want 144

297 would rather/sooner and prefer/would prefer 145

298 More examples of preference 146

299 wish, want and would like 146

300 wish + subject + unreal past 146

301 wish (that) + subject + would 147

302 Form 148

A The passive of an active tense is formed by putting the verb to be into the same tense as the active verb and adding the past participle of the active verb. 148

3ОЗ Active tenses and their passive equivalents 149

304 Uses of the passive The passive is used: 149

305 Prepositions with passive verbs 150

306 Infinitive constructions after passive verbs 150

307 Direct and indirect (or reported) speech 151

308 Statements in indirect speech: tense changes necessary 151

309 Past tenses sometimes remain unchanged 152

310 Unreal past tenses (subjunctives) in indirect speech 152

311 might, ought to, should, would, used to in indirect statements 153

312 could in indirect statements 153

313 Indirect speech: pronoun and adjective 153

315 Infinitive and gerund constructions in indirect speech 155

317 Questions in indirect speech 156

318 Questions beginning shall I/we? in indirect speech Questions beginning shall I/we? can be of four kinds. 157

319 Questions beginning will you/would you/could you? 157

320 Commands, requests, advice in indirect speech 158

321 Other ways of expressing indirect commands 158

322 let's, let us, let him/them in indirect speech 159

323 Exclamations and yes and no 160

324 Indirect speech: mixed types 160

325 must and needn't 161

326 Co-ordinating conjunctions: and, but, both . . . and, or, either ... or, neither . . . nor, not only . . . but also 162

327 besides, however, nevertheless, otherwise, so, therefore, still, yet, though 162

328 Subordinating conjunctions: if, that, though/although, unless, when etc. 163

329 though/although and in spite of (preposition phrase), despite (preposition) 163

330 for and because 163

331 when, while, as used to express time 164

332 as meaning when/while or because/since 164

333 as, when, while used to mean although, but, seeing that 165

334 Purpose is normally expressed by the infinitive 165

335 Infinitives of purpose after go and come 166

336 Clauses of purpose 166

337 in case and lest 167

338 Clauses of reason and result/cause 167

339 Clauses of result with such/so . . . that 168

340 Clauses of concession 168

341 Clauses of comparison 168

342 Time clauses 169

343 Noun clauses (that-clauses) as subject of a sentence 170

344 that-clauses after certain adjectives/participles 170

345 that-clauses after certain nouns 170

346 Noun clauses as objects of verbs 170

347 so and not representing a that-clause 171

348 Cardinal numbers (adjectives and pronouns) 172

349 Points to notice about cardinal numbers 172

350 Ordinal numbers (adjectives and pronouns) 173

351 Points to notice about ordinal numbers 173

352 Dates 173

354 Introduction 174

Vowels are: a e i o u 174

355 Doubling the consonant 174

362 Introduction 175

363 Verb + preposition/adverb combinations account 176