Inorganic Impurities

a) Reagents, ligands, and catalysts. The chances of having these impurities are rare: however, in some processes, these could create a problem unless the manufacturers take proper care during production

b) Heavy metals. The main sources of heavy metals are the water used in the processes and the reactors (if stainless steel reactors are used), where acidification or acid hydrolysis takes place.

c) Other materials (e.g. filter aids, charcoal)

Solvent Residues

Residual solvents are in the majority of cases organic volatile chemicals used during the manufacturing process or generated during the production. It is very difficult to remove these solvents completely by the work-up process; however, efforts should be taken to the extent possible to meet the safety data. Some solvents that are known to cause toxicity should be avoided in the production of bulk drugs.

Impurities Related to Formulation

Apart from bulk drug-related impurities, the formulated form of API may contain impurities that form in various ways.

a) method-related.

b) environment-related

c) dosage form factors related

Formation of Impurities on Aging

a) Mutual interaction amongst ingredients

Most vitamins are very labile and on aging they pose a problem of instability in different dosage forms, especially in liquid dosage forms.

b) Functional group-related typical degradation (ester hydrolysis, oxidative degradation, photolytic cleavage)

Measures by Pharamcopoeias

It has been observed in the pharmacopoeias that there is an impurity limit shown in the specifica­tions of certain raw materials but not given in the case of products made of those raw materials. Although the impurity limit on the drug substances is applicable to the drug products, it would be convenient for the users if the impurity limits were also mentioned in each dosage forms. The limits may vary from orals to injectables. Diclofenac sodium is such an example where an impurity limit is not mentioned in the case of injections.

Text c aspirin

Read the text and get the main idea. After reading, present a summary of the text.

Aspirin (USAN), also known as acetylsalicylic acid, is a salicylate drug, often used as an analgesic to relieve minor aches and pains, as antipyretic to reduce fever, and as an anti-inflammatory medication.

Chemistry

Aspirin is an acetyl derivative of salicylic acid that is a white, crystalline, weakly acidic substance, with a melting point of 135 °C (275 °F). Acetylsalicylic acid decomposes rapidly in solutions of ammonium acetate or of the acetates, carbonates, citrates or hydroxides of the alkali metals. Acetylsalicylic acid is stable in dry air, but gradually hydrolyses in contact with moisture to acetic and salicylic acids. In solution with alkalis, the hydrolysis proceeds rapidly and the clear solutions formed may consist entirely of acetate and salicylate.

Synthesis

The synthesis of aspirin is classified as an esterification reaction. Salicylic acid is treated with acetic anhydride, an acid derivative, causing a chemical reaction that turns salicylic acid's hydroxyl group into an acetyl group, (R-OH -> R-OCOCH3). This process yields aspirin and acetic acid, which is considered a byproduct of this reaction. Small amounts of sulfuric acid (and occasionally phosphoric acid) are almost always used as a catalyst. This method is commonly employed in undergraduate teaching labs.

Formulations containing high concentrations of aspirin often smell like vinegar. This is because aspirin can decompose through hydrolysis in moist conditions, yielding salicylic acid and acetic acid.

Aspirin was the first discovered member of the class of drugs known as nonsteroidal anti-flammatory drugs (NSAIDs), not all of which are salicylates, although they all have similar effects and most have inhibition of the enzyme cyclooxygenase as their mechanism of action. Today, aspirin is one of the most widely used medications in the world, with an estimated 40,000 tonnes it being consumed each year. In countries where Aspirin is a registered trademark owned by Bayer, the generic term is acetylsalicylic acid (ASA).

Therapeutic Uses

Aspirin is one of the first-line drugs used in the treatment of migraine, bringing relief in 50-60% of the cases. In general, aspirin works well for dull, throbbing pain; it is ineffective for pain caused by most muscle cramps, bloating, gastric distension and acute skin irritation. Aspirin did not ease pain during cycling exercise, while caffeine, surprisingly, was very effective. Similarly, aspirin, codeine or paracetamol (acetaminophen) were not better than placebo for muscle soreness after exercise.

Aspirin has an antiplatelet effect by inhibiting the production of thromboxane, which under normal circumstances binds platelet molecules together to create a patch over damage of the walls within blood vessels. Aspirin is also used long-term, at low doses, to help prevent heart attacks, strokes, and blood clot formation in people at high risk for developing blood clots. It has also been established that low doses of aspirin may be given immediately after a heart attack to reduce the risk of another heart attack or of the death of cardiac tissue.

The main undesirable side effects of aspirin are gastrointestinal ulcers, stomach bleeding especially in higher doses. In children and adolescents, aspirin is no longer used to control flu-like symptoms or the symptoms of chickenpox or other viral illnesses, because of the risk of Reye’s syndrome.

Overdose

Aspirin overdose can be acute or chronic. In acute poisoning, a single large dose is taken; in chronic poisoning, higher than normal doses are taken over a period of time. Acute overdose has a mortality rate of 2%. Chronic overdose is more commonly lethal with a mortality rate of 25%; chronic overdose may be especially severe in children. Toxicity is managed with a number of potential treatments including: activated charcoal, intravenous dextrose and normal saline, sodium bicarbonate, and dialysis.