4. English orthography, graphic.

English orthography is the alphabetic spelling system used by the English language. English orthography, like other alphabetic orthographies, uses a set of habits to represent speech sounds in writing. In most other languages, these habits are regular enough so that they may be called rules. In standard English spelling, however, nearly every sound is spelled in more than one way, and most spellings and all letters can be pronounced in more than one way and often in many different ways. This is partly due to the complex history of the English language,^[1] but mainly due to the fact that no systematic spelling reform has been implemented in English, contrary to the situation in most other languages. English spelling is mainly based on how the language was pronounced in the 15th century. Especially the pronunciation of long vowels and diphthongs has completely changed since then.

Graphic 1) the set of descriptive means of a letter, including a grapheme, punctuation, accents, etc., the system of relations between graphemes and phonemes in the phonemic letter, 2) a branch of linguistics that investigates the relationship between graphemes and phonemes. The concept of "schedule" is usually applied to the phonemic (sound-letter) to the letter, which distinguishes three aspects: the alphabet and orthography. In today's world, the most common national writing system, built on the basis of the Latin alphabet, Cyrillic and Arabic script. Existing in the science of the perfect schedule (when between phonemes and graphemes is an exact match: each grapheme transmits a single phoneme, and each phoneme is passed one grapheme) is not represented in any letter and can only serve as a starting point for evaluation of the correspondence between any audio language and a system of writing.

The discrepancy between the number of graphemes and phonemes in many modern writing systems, built on the Latin alphabet, due to the historical adaptation of the alphabet - without radical changes (or no changes) - who had adopted his language. 23 letters (in late Latin 25) could reflect a much larger number of phonemes of many modern languages ​​(36-46). The gap in the ratio of graphemes and phonemes increased with the passage of time and due to the inevitable changes in phonetic languages ​​themselves if they remained traditional spelling. A characteristic of this phenomenon is presented in the English letter. For the 46 phonemes in the English alphabet has 26 characters. In English, the letter is widely used combinations of letters (complex grapheme) digraphs (eg, ck [k]), trigraphs (eg, oeu [u:]), polygraphs (eg, augh [ɔ:]). A total of 118 English writing complex graph, along with the monograph (type b [b]), they are 144 grapheme. Stable combinations of letters are logged in the English charts as an additional means of expression of phonemes.

Transcription in the linguistic sense is the systematic representation of language in written form. The source can either be utterances (speech) or preexisting text in another writing system, although some linguists consider only the former to be transcription. Transcription should not be confused with translation, which means representing the meaning of a source language text in a target language, or with transliteration which means representing a text from one script in another (e.g. transliterating a Cyrillictext into the Latin script). In the academic discipline of linguistics, transcription is an essential part of the methodologies of (among others) phonetics, conversation analysis,dialectology and sociolinguistics. It also plays an important role for several subfields of speech technology. Common examples for transcriptions outside academia are the proceedings of a court hearing such as a criminal trial (by a court reporter) or a physician's recorded voice notes (medical transcription). This article focuses on transcription in linguistics.