1. The compound sentence

A compound sentence is a sentence which consists of two or more clauses coordinated with each other. A clause is part of a sentence which has a subject and a predicate of its own.

In a compound sentence the clauses may be connected:

1. syndetically , i.e. by means of coordinating conjunctions (and, or, but, etc.) or conjunctive adverbs (however, yet, still, otherwise, etc.):

e.g. The darkness was thinning, but the street was still dimly lighted.

2. asyndetically, i.e. without a conjunction or conjunctive adverbs:

e.g. The rain fell softly, the house was quiet.

The types of coordination

1. Copulative coordination (соединительная) expressed by the conjunctions and, nor, neither nor, not only but. To add some information:

e.g. It was a nice little place and Mr. and Mrs. Witla were rather proud of it.

2. Disjunctive coordination (разделительная) expressed by the conjunctions or, else, either or. By these a choice is offered between the statements expressed in two clauses:

e.g. Don’t come near me with that look else I’ll knock you down.

Either listen to me, or I shall stop reading to you.

3. Adversative coordination (противительная связь) expressed by the conjunctions but, while, whereas and conjunctive adverbs nevertheless, still, yet. To connect two clauses contrasting in meaning:

e.g. The room was dark but the street was lighter because of its lamps.

The story was amusing, but nobody laughed.

Peter is an engineer, while his brother is a musician.

Some people prefer going to the theatre, whereas others will stay at home watching TV programmes.

4. Causative-consecutive coordination (причинно-следственная связь) expressed by the conjunctions for (explaining the preceding statement), so and conjunctive adverbs therefore, accordingly, hence (denoting cause, consequence and result):

e.g. After all, the two of them belonged to the same trade, so talk was easy and happy between them.

The days became longer, for it was now springtime.

The weather was fine, so there were many people on the beach.

2. The complex sentence

A complex sentence consists of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses:

This is the news which he didn’t know.

You should pardon John, as he didn’t know the rules.

Clauses in a complex sentence may be linked in two ways:

1. syndetically, i.e. by means of subordinating conjunctions or connectives.

Conjunctions are specialized formal devices (connectors) the only function of which is to link clauses and express the relation between them. They usually stand at the beginning of a subordinate clause. Connectives combine two functions - that of linking clauses and that of a part in the subordinate clause: He doesn’t care what happens to us; This is where we live, etc.

2. asyndetically, i.e. without a conjunction or connectives:

I wish you had come earlier.

According to their grammatical functions subordinate clauses are divided into subject, predicative, attributive, object and adverbial clauses.

Subject clauses

They perform the function of subject to the predicate of the principal clause. The subordinate clause serves as subject:

What I want to do is to save us both.

Predicative clauses

They perform the function of a predicative and it forms a compound nominal predicate:

Our attitude simply is that facts are facts.

Object clauses

They perform the function of an object to the predicate verb of the principal clause:

I don’t know what you are talking about.

What happened then I do not know.

Attributive clauses

They serve as an attribute to a noun (pronoun) in the principal clause. This noun or pronoun is called is called the antecedent [̗̗æntɪ'si:d(ə)nt] антецедент of the clause.

According to their meaning and the way they are connected with the principal clause attributive clauses are divided into relative (to qualify уточнять the antecedent) and appositive (to disclose раскрывать its meaning) ones.

Attributive relative clauses can be:

- restrictive clause: restricts the meaning of the antecedent. It cannot be removed without destroying the meaning of the sentences. It is not separated by a comma from the principal clause because of its close connection with it:

I think my father is the best man I have ever known.

- non-restrictive (descriptive) clause: does not restrict the meaning of the antecedent; it gives some additional information about it. It can be left out without destroying the meaning of the sentence. They are separated by a comma:

He went in alone to the dining-room where the table was laid for one.

Attributive appositive clauses disclose the meaning of the antecedent, which is expresses by an abstract noun. It is not separated from the principal clause by a comma:

He stopped in the hope that she would speak.

Adverbial clauses

They perform the function of an adverbial modifier:

- time: You can stay here as long as you want.

- place: I looked where she pointed.

- condition: If he is not by the end of the week, I shall go after him.

- comparison: We were going up the road as fast as we could.

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